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Yhe Science and /^rt 

...of... 

Penmanship. 

. . A Text Book for . . 


§ehool^ and the H ome * 

...By... 

G. W. Henderson, M. D. 

For eighteen years a teacher I17 the public 
schools of Ohio; flUthor of the “Tabulated 
fTJarjUal of flnatorny, Physiology, and My^iene;” 
(T)ouo^rafns on “The fllirpentary Canal and its 
Pppenda^es;” “ rhetaboiisrn,” etc. 


J899. 


G. W. Henderson & Son, Publishers, 
West Cairo, Allen County, 0. 










Copyright 1899 

BT 

Geo. W. Henderson, M. D., 
West Cairo, Ohio. 


TWtf £v» i 



ir 


tK 






A 


O 












To my wife, Mary Emma Henderson, and son, Harry 
Harold Henderson, who have so faithfully aided me, in 
particular, and to all fellow-teachers and others interested 
in the cause of education in general, this work is respect¬ 
fully dedicated . . . 







. . Preface . . 


3 >oO^Oo<« 


Z >1 n C^ HE TITLE, “ Science and Art of Pen¬ 
manship,” indicates at once the intent 
and scope of this volume. 

What, when, and how, are problems 
every teacher is endeavoring to work out 
in a practical, common sense way so that the inter¬ 
est of pupils may be daily renewed and valuable 
time saved and annoying experience in recitations 
avoided. It is not the peculiar views of any one 
person alone, but the views of many, systematized 
and teachable, that must ever prove invaluable to 
the teacher who, after all, must take his own course. 

The fact that the study of Penmanship should be 
carried along the same as orthography, geography, 
grammar, etc., to a complete understanding of the 
subject before passing to more advanced studies has 
long been recognized, we believe, but not practically 
applied. 

To present the entire subject in text-book form so 
as to be adapted to any and all “ systems ” of copy 
books to take its place along with other studies 
in class work is a feature which has hitherto escaped 
notice. It is as important to assign daily lessons in 
penmanship as in physiology, geography, grammar, 
etc. 





Preface. 


5 


There are a great many excellent systems of copy 
books now published, each system doing a great 
and good work in the field for which it is designed 
— and to all of which we acknowledge indebtedness. 
The profession owes a debt to any author who aims 
at concentration instead of diffusiveness because 
much which is spread out in many volumes may be 
used to greater advantage in a one volume treatise 
where thoroughness, modernness, accuracy, and 
convenience of arrangement are especially import¬ 
ant features. It is not the aim of the author of this 
work to appear isolated and claiming originality 
where none exists, but it is his ambition to be of use 
in a field where years of annoying experience has 
taught him that a text-book in teachable form on 
Penmanship, which inspires to daily research and 
draws from pupils intelligent recitations from day to 
day, should be in the hands of every teacher and 
student. 

It is, perhaps, a mistaken idea that students must 
be sent to special schools and much expense in¬ 
curred to acquire a thorough understanding of pen¬ 
manship. There is no place it can be so well 
learned as right in our public schools and the 
home reading circles. The course of instruction 
need neither begin too high nor end too low. A 
mastery of the science and art of penmanship is 
required. We hereby acknowledge the aid of 
authors and teachers whom we can no more repay 
for what they have done for us than can a man in 


6 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


any profession repay the debt he owes for the rich 
dowry of knowledge garnered since the birth of 
letters and bestowed upon him when he espoused it. 
But for the great army of instructors standing amid 
the ruins of past theories surrounded by the mingled 
debris of error and fact, loyalty and love, respect and 
reverence will ever be uppermost. 

G. W. Henderson, M. D., 
May, 1899. West Cairo, Ohio. 



\ 


Suggestions to the Teacher. 


7 


SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 


Although penmanship should be taught like gram¬ 
mar, orthography, history, etc., so far as regular reci¬ 
tations are concerned, yet in addition to the text all 
other available aids and helps should be brought to 
bear, from time to time, upon the subject. Accu¬ 
racy and facility in the use of written language are 
the chief ends to be secured in the study of Penman¬ 
ship. To secure these a thorough acquaintance with 
the elements, forms, structure, and laws of written 
language is indispensable; and a practical knowledge 
of these must be acquired by patient, persistent, 
painstaking practice in the critical analysis and 
synthesis as well as in the execution of letters, syl¬ 
lables, words, and sentences. Like other studies 
the entire field of Penmanship must be diligently 
surveyed to insure a complete and comprehensive 
knowledge of the subject. This gives a wide range 
for study. The chapters in this volume need not be 
taken in rotation unless it would serve the best in¬ 
terests of the pupils. The manner of recitations as 
in other common school branches vary owing to the 
pupil’s attainments and aptness to learn. A class 
of six to nine year old pupils should be thoroughly 
drilled on position of the body, arms, hands, eye, 



8 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


feet; pen-prehension and poising; neatness, orderly 
arrangement, and the care of the person, paper, pen 
and ink. At the same time a discussion of the dif¬ 
ferences and resemblances of elements, letters, syl¬ 
lables, words and sentences should be commenced. 
At ages from nine to twelve tendencies and habits 
should be patiently and persistently watched with a 
view to a correct methodical foundation. Movement 
in all its details should be brought as near to com¬ 
pletion as possible, and a thorough discussion of the 
manner of execution, practice, or production should 
be commenced. Analysis and synthesis; letter 
writing, speed, uniformity, and definitions of terms 
should receive, careful and continued attention. At 
ages from twelve to eighteen years and upwards, 
the whole field of penmanship should be sought and 
passed before all in review. Capitalization and 
punctuation should receive particular attention since 
the sentence is not written till it is punctuated. 
The analysis of subjects or themes and the writing 
or mechanical execution thereof; abbreviations, 
drawings of maps, and all kinds of forms; notes, 
mortgages, deeds, wills, articles of agreement, meth¬ 
ods of transfer, making out bills, the ordering of 
goods, etc.; the “ Question Method,” that of giving 
a list of ten or fifteen questions to be answered and 
discussed at the recitation following is to be com¬ 
mended. The Topic Method,” that of giving a 
topic or theme to be outlined and discussed the day 
following is profitable, since it throws the pupil upon 


Suggestions to the Teacher. 


9 


his own resources and forces him to carry himself 
and to incarnate his thought by pen, pencil, or 
crayon into written language. Unless penmanship 
does this it fails of the main good possible to it. 
“ I know but can not tell it” should not be the con¬ 
dition of a pupil, and for this reason we have given 
considerable attention to definitions. Lessons 
should be assigned — usually short — and each les¬ 
son reviewed, and each topic and every difficult 
point should be clearly illustrated and each member 
of the class reached. Growth and development re¬ 
quire time. The only way to strengthen the mind 
is to make it work. The teacher must guide, not 
carry, his pupil. Practice by varied and exhaustive 
drill in letter writing, business forms, important 
themes, arranging and rearranging of parts, criticism 
as to plan or framework, arrangement, execution, 
proper use of capitals and punctuation marks, italics, 
abbreviations, spelling, alignment, parallelism, style, 
size, slant, shade, spacing, accuracy, etc. 

Pupils thus instructed, as we have observed, be¬ 
come excellent critics—a point in a pupil's knowl¬ 
edge which every progressive teacher appreciates. 
We have aimed at thoroughness and convenience of 
arrangement by placing the subject in the following 
order: 

Cnapter I, “ History.” 

Chapter II, u Position.” 

Chapter III, “Analysis and Synthesis.” 

Chapter IV, u Movement.” 


10 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Chapter V, u Execution.” 

Chapter VI, “ Spacing and Shading.” 

Chapter VII, “General Practice or Production, 
and Drawing.” 

Chapter VIII, “ Capitalization, Italics and Ab¬ 
breviations.” 

Chapter IX, u Punctuation.” 

Chapter X, u Letter Writing and Business Forms.” 

Chapter XI, u Narcotics.” 

The frame-work of the subject is given by diagram 
at the beginning of each chapter, and a list of review 
questions is given following each chapter. 


CHAPTER I 


1. Phoenicians 

2. Phoenician Language 

3. Invention of Letters. 

4. Alphabet. 

5. Documents. 

6. Chinese Writing- 

7. The Papyrus Paper. 

8. Egyptian Writing. 

9. Key to Egyptian Writing. 

I 0. Arabic Numerals. 

I I. English Language 


f 1. Arabic. 

■{ 2. Aramaic. 

[ 3. Hebrew. 

f 1. Mode of Invention. 

J 2. Where ? 

] 3. When ? 

I 4. By Whom. 

f 1. Phoenician. 

1 2. Hebrew. 

L 3. Arabic. 

1. Oldest. 

2. Arrangement. 

[ 3. Materials. 

1. No Alphabet. 

2. Symbolical. 

f 1. Hieroglyphical. 

^ 2. Hieratic. 

3. Demotic. 

1. Origin. 

2. Why so named ? 

1. Origin. 

2. Periods. 

3. Composite fl. Origin. 

4. Alphabetic (2. Deriva¬ 

tion, 


HISTORY. 


I 2. Type Writing, Stenography, etc. 
13. Exercises. 













12 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY. 

Phoenicia. —A tract of country, of which Tyre and 
Sidon were the principal cities, to the north of 
Palestine, along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea; 
bounded by that sea on the west, and by the moun¬ 
tain range of Lebanon on the east. 

Phoenicians. —The name of the race who, in ear¬ 
liest recorded history, inhabited Phoenicia, and who 
were the great commercial people of the ancient 
world. 

The Phoenician Language belonged to that family 
of languages which, by a name now generally adopted, 
is called u Shemitic ” or u Semitic.” Under this 
name are included three distinct branches : 1st, 
Arabic , to which belongs ^Ethiopian as an offshoot of 
the southern Arabic or Himyaritic. 2nd, Aramaic , 
the vernacular language of Palestine at the time of 
Christ. 3rd, Hebrew , in which by far the greatest 
part of the Old Testament writings was composed. 
A very interesting point to remember is that 

Note to the Teacher.— Although the History of Pen¬ 
manship is very interesting and important, this chapter 
may be omitted until review, owing to the wants of the class. 



History. 


13 

Phoenician does not belong to either of the first two 
branches, but to the third or Hebrew. The fact is, 
it is so closely allied to Hebrew, that Phoenician and 
Hebrew, though different dialects, may practically 
be regarded as the same language. 

Concerning the original race to which the Phoe¬ 
nicians belonged, nothing can be known with cer¬ 
tainty because they are found already established 
along the Mediterranean Sea at the earliest dawn of 
authentic history. According to Herodotus they 
said of themselves in his time that they came in days 
of old from the shores of the Red Sea; and in this 
there would be nothing improbable as they spoke a 
language cognate to that of the Armenians who in¬ 
habited the east coast of that sea; and both Hebrew 
and Arabic, as well as Aramaic are seemingly de¬ 
rived from some one Semitic language now lost. 
Still, neither the truth nor the falsehood of the tra¬ 
dition can now be proved. 

The most important intellectual invention of man, 
that of letters, was universally asserted by the 
Greeks and Romans to have been communicated by 
the Phoenicians to the Greeks, and the names of the 
Hebrew alphabet are in accordance with this belief. 
Moreover, as to writing, the ancient Hebrew letters 
substantially the same as Phoenician, agree closely 
with ancient Greek letters. 

As to the mode in which letters were invented, 
some clew is afforded by some of the early Hebrew 
and the Phoenician characters, which evidently 


14 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


aimed, although very rudely, to represent the object 
which the name of the letter signified. 

The Phcenician Alphabet consisted at first of only 
sixteen letters. Pliny tells us that Cadmus brought 
with him into Greece the alphabet , and founded the 
city of Thebes 1493 B. C. At the time of the Trojan 
War, Palamedes added four more letters and soon 
Simonides, of Melos, added four others, making in 
all twenty-four letters in the Phoenician alphabet. 
It is interesting to remember that Hiram, Xing of 
Tyre, one of the important cities of Phoenicia, was 
the friend of King Solomon and assisted him with 
men and timber to build the famous King Solomon’s 
Temple. Not only did the Phoenicians make the 
most important intellectual invention ever made by 
man — that of letters — but they are also given the 
credit for having first invented weights and measures. 

The oldest evidence on the subject of the Hebrew 
Alphabet is derived from the Alphabetical psalms 
and poems — Psalms xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cxii., 
cxix.; Proverbs xxxi., 10-31; Lam. 1-4. From these 
we ascertain that the number of letters was twenty- 
two, the same number that the Hebrew alphabet of 
the present has. 

The Arabic Alphabet originally consisted of the 
same number as the Hebrew, namely, twenty-two 
letters. 

The Oldest Documents which contain the writings 
of a Semitic race are probably the bricks of Ninevah 
and Babylon on which are inscribed the cuneiform 


History. 


15 


Assyrian inscriptions. Herodotus, after telling us 
that the Ionians learnt the “ art of writing ” from 
the Phoenicians, adds that they called their books 
u skins” because they made use of sheep-skins and 
goat-skins. Parchment was used for the manuscripts 
of the Pentateuch in the time of Josephus. 

It was one of the provisions of the Talmud that 
the law should be written on the skins of clean 
animals, tame or wild. 

The skins when written upon were lormed into 
rolls upon one or two sticks and fastened with a 
thread, the ends of which were sealed. The rolls 
were generally written on one side only. They were 
divided into columns (leaves). The upper margin 
was to be not less than three fingers broad, the lower 
not less than four; and a space two fingers broad 
was to be left between every two columns. 

Besides skins, which were used for the more per¬ 
manent kinds of writing, tablets of wood covered 
with wax served for the ordinary purposes of life. 
Several of these were fastened together and formed 
volumes . They were written upon with a pointed 
style, sometimes of iron; for harder material a graver 
was employed. For skins or parchment a reed was 
used. 

The Ink was to be of lamp black dissolved in gall- 
juice. It was carried in an ink stand which was 
suspended at the girdle as is done at the present day 
in the East. 


16 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Chinese Writing — It is nearly certain that writing 
was known among the Chinese as early as 2000 B. C. 
They have no alphabet but each word is represented 
upon the written page by a symbol or combination 
of symbols; this requires that there be as many sym¬ 
bols or characters as there are words in the language. 
The number sanctioned by good use is about 25,000. 
A knowledge of 5,000 or 6,000 symbols enables one to 
read and write without difficulty. Many of the 
characters bear a remote resemblance to the objects 
tor which they stand. This system, cumbrous and 
inconvenient as it is, is employed at the present 
time by one-third of the human race. Thev printed 
from movable types as early as the tenth or eleventh 
century, that is to say, about 400 years before the 
same art was invented in Europe. 

The Egyptians — 

The Papyrus Paper —The chief writing material 
used by the Egyptians was the noted papyrus paper, 
manufactured from a reed which grew in the marshes 
and along the water channels of the Nile. From 
the Greek names of this Egyptian plant, byblos and 
papyrus, come our words u Bible ” and “paper.” 
The plant has now entirely disappeared from Egypt, 
and is found only in parts of the island of Sicily and 
on a small stream near Jaffa, in Palestine. Long be¬ 
fore the plant became extinct in Egypt an ancient 
prophecy declared, “The paper reeds by the brooks 
* * * wither, be driven away, and be no 

more.” (Isa. xix-7.) 


History. 


17 


The Egyptians employed three forms of writing : 
(1) The hieroglyphical, consisting of rude pictures 
of material objects usually employed in monumental 
inscriptions. (2) The hieratic, a simplified form of 
the hieroglyphical and formed the greater part of 
the papyrus manuscripts. (3) The demotic or en- 
corial, a still simpler form which came into use 
about the seventh century B. C., was then used for 
all ordinary documents and could be written eight 
or ten times faster than the hieroglyphical form. 

The Key to Egyptian Writing was discovered by 
means of the Rosetta Stone, a heavy block of black 
basalt, now in the British Museum. It holds an in¬ 
scription written in hieroglyphic, in demotic and in 
Greek characters. Champollion, a French scholar, 
by comparing the characters in the words Ptolemy, 
Alexander, and other names in the parallel inscrip¬ 
tions, discovered the value of several of the sym 
bols; and thus were opened the vast libraries of 
Egyptian learning. 

The Arabic Numerals are so called because they 
were first introduced into Europe by the Arabs. They 
were not, however, invented by that people, but 
were derived by them from Hindostan. They were 
originally the initial letters of the Sanskrit names 
for the nine digits, one , two , three , etc., but have 
undergone considerable changes of form. The Sans¬ 
krit is the ancient language of the Hindoos. 

The English Language is a composite language 
and is the descendant and representative of the 


18 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Anglo-Saxon. For five centuries after the Norman 
conquest it was in constant, and rapid process of 
change. It has never ceased to change, for then it 
would have ceased to be a living language. It has 
gone through the (1) Semi-Saxon Period (1150- 
1250), (2) Old English Period (1250-1350), (3) Mid¬ 
dle English Period (1350-1550), into what is now 
the (4) Modern Period. Foreign words that come 
into our language do not stand by themselves as an 
independent class but are Anglicized —subjected 
to English laws and analogies, and assimilated 
chiefly in three ways: (1) By the foreign words 
being accented according to English analogy. (2) By 
declining the borrowed words according to English 
analogy. (3) By giving the borrowed words prefixes 
and suffixes. The French words engrafted on the na¬ 
tive English stock are, with few exceptions, from the 
Latin, and when added to the almost equal number 
which have come directly from the Latin, they make 
four-fifths of all our borrowed words. The remain 
der of borrowed words scarcely exceed one twentieth 
part of the entire vocabulary and are taken from a 
great variety of sources — the Hebrew, Arabic, 
Celtic, Dutch, Turkish, etc. It has lost many of 
the words (have become obsolete,) which belonged 
to the parent language —the Anglo-Saxon. On the 
other hand it has borrowed largely, almost to the 
the extent of half its vocabulary, from other lan¬ 
guages, especially the French and I he Latin, and 
will continue to borrow. 


History. 


19 


The word u alphabet ” is derived from the names 
of the first two letters of the Greek, v}z : Alpha and 
Beta. 

The English Alphabet consists of twenty-six let¬ 
ters which represent forty-two elementary sounds. 
To write our alphabet properly in “ Standard ” 
written language requires for the small letters 52 
right and 35 left curves, 27 points, and 56 turns. 
For the capital letters, 32 right and 52 left curves, 
16 points and 65 turns. 

The style, the graver, the reed, the goose-quill 
have been supplemented by the beautiful and ar¬ 
tistically constructed pens of various shapes and 
sizes, and the skins, and parchment rolls by the 
finest of writing paper. 

Type Writing was first invented in 1714 A. D. by 
Henry Mill, of London. The first successful ma¬ 
chine, however, was made by E. Remington in 
Ilion, N. Y., in 1874. 

Stenography was first employed by Dr. Timothy 
Bright in England, in 1588. The first alphabetic 
system, however, was published in 1668 by John 
Willis, of England. Mr. Pitman’s system which has 
become so noted was invented in 1837. In forming 
his alphabet he has imitated the Hebrew more 
nearly than any other, so that in the latest and most 
improved form of written language we have a restor- 

Origin — From the Phoenician the Greek ; from the Greek 
the Latin, from the Latin, our own English Alphabet. 



20 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


ation of the original characters to some extent, as 
taught to Mqses on Mount Sinai. There are now 
(1898) about two hundred systems in use. 

The Telegraphic Alphabet, composed of dashes, 
dots, and spaces, was invented by Prof. S. F. B. 
Morse in 1844. 

The first steel pens were used in 1830. 

The first envelopes in 1839. We may add that 
about the middle of the 16th century, vertical 
penmanship was discontinued for slant writing, but 
recently it has been revived, the basis of which is 
the old English round hand. 

Among the first authors in America was John 
Jenkins who published a work in A. D. 1791. Then 
came Wrifford, Hewitt, Jackson, and others. Rand, 
of Philadelphia, published a work in 1820. Root 
published a series of copy books, twelve books in a 
series in 1842. In 1851 Payson, Dunton, and Scrib¬ 
ner’s, and in 1855 Spencer’s series was brought out. 
This brings us to many living authors of today. 

EXERCISES. 

TOPIC METHOD. 

1. Write five lines taking for your subject u The 
Phoenicians.” 

2. Write fifteen lines on “ The Phoenician Lan¬ 
guage.” 

3. Write ten lines on the u Invention of Letters.” 

4. Write five lines on the “ Alphabet.” 

5. Write ten lines on “The Chinese Writing.” 


History. 


21 


6. Write ten lines on “The Egyptian Writing.” 

7. Write five lines on “ The Papyrus Paper.” 

8. Write ten lines on “The Key to Egyptian 
Writing.” 

9. Write twenty lines on “The English Lan¬ 
guage,” giving its origin and composition. 

QUESTION METHOD. 

1. Who were the Phoenicians ? 

2. Where were they located? 

8. Name three branches of the Semitic lan¬ 
guage and state which the Phoenician belongs to 
or is. 

4. Distinguish between Arabic, Aramaic and 
Hebrew. 

5. What can you say of the original race to 
which the Phoenicians belonged ? 

6. What seems to sustain the belief that they 
came from the Red Sea region ? 

7. What is the most important intellectual in¬ 
vention of man ? 

8. Who has the honor of the invention of 
letters ? 

9. Tell something of the mode in which letters 
were invented. 

10. Who brought the alphabet into Greece ? 

11. Give the history of the number of letters of 
the Phoenician alphabet. 

12. Who are given credit for the invention of 
weights and measures ? 


22 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


13. Where is the oldest evidence on the subject 
of the Hebrew alphabet? 

14. How many letters has the Hebrew alphabet ? 

15. How many letters has the Arabic alphabet ? 

16. What are the oldest documents of the Sem¬ 
itic race, probably? 

17. How were the ancient books made? What 
were they called ? Why? 

18. What kind of writing material was used for 
the MSS. of the Pentateuch in the time of Josephus? 

19. What kind of skins was the law, according 
to the Talmud, written upon ? 

20. How were the skins cared for after being 
written upon? Describe these rolls. 

21. Besides skins what else was used for ordi¬ 
nary purposes ? 

22. Name some of the instruments with which 
the Ancients wrote. 

23. What was the earliest kind of ink used ? 

24. Why were the Arabic numerals so called ? 

25. From what source were the Arabic numerals 
derived ? 

26. What do you understand by the Sanskrit ? 

27. What is language ? 

28. Whence has the English language descended? 

29. Is the English language al ways changing ? 

30. How do foreign words get into the English 
language ? How assimilated ? 

31. What proportion of borrowed words from 
the Latin ? From what other source come borrowed 
words ? 


History. 


23 


32. What proportion of words is borrowed from 
the French and Latin ? 

33. Give the origin of our own English alphabet. 
Give derivation of the word u alphabet.” 

34. Of what does the English alphabet consist ? 

35. By whom were italics invented? When? 

36. When were steel pens first used? Envelopes? 

37. When was typewriting invented? 

38. When was stenography first employed? 

39. When was telegraphy first invented? 

40. When was vertical penmanship first discon¬ 
tinued for slant ? When revived ? 

41. What is our recent vertical penmanship de¬ 
rived from ? 

42. How old is Chinese writing? 

43. Have the Chinese an alphabet? 

44. What part of the human race use the Chi¬ 
nese language. 

45. Describe their method of writing. 

46. Give the history of the Papyrus paper. 

47. How many forms of writing did the Egyp¬ 
tians use ? Describe them. 

48. How and by whom was the key to Egyptian 
writing discovered? 

49. Of what benefit was this discovery. 

50. Name some early American authors in pen¬ 
manship. 


24 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER II. 


1. Definition. 

2. The Body. 

3. The Fingers_ 

4. The Arms.. 

5. Feet and Limbs. 

6. Exercises. 


7. The Eye 


POSITION. 

fl. Front Position l h Standard Slant 

2. Right Position. 2 ' Vertical Hand 
[3. Exercises, 
f 1. Pen-prehension, 
j 2. Poising. 

1 . 3 . Exercises, 
fl. Right. 

| 2. Left. 


1. Position of the Eye. 

2. Vision. 

3. Refraction. 

i 

4. Accommodation. 

5. Emmetropia. 

6. Ametropia. 

7. Myopia. 

8. Hypermetropia. 

9. Presbyopia. 

10. Asthenopia. 

11. Phosphenes. 

12. Astigmatism. 

13. Binocular. 

14 Color Blindness. 

I 15 . Suggestions. 











Position. 


25 


1. Formed 
According to 


2. Must 


8. The Class Position <| 


f I 1 . Age. 

| 2. Sex. 

\ 3. Habits, 
j 4. Temperament. 

^5. Development. 

1. Proper Light. 

2. Proper Temperature. 
Insure ] 3. Proper Space. 

14. Ease of Body, 
f 1. Review. 

2. The Books. 

3. The Pens. 

4. The Pen-Wipers. 

3. Exercises -I 5 ‘ 1116 Blotters - 

6. The Distribution of 
Copy Books. 

7. Practice Paper. 

8. Blackboard. 

[ 19. Close. 


9. Question Method. 

10. Topic Method. 

I I. Assigning Lessons. 


I 2. Cautions. 

13. Results of Improper Positions. 

14. Review Questions 







26 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER II. 


POSITION. 

Position is the situation or disposition of the parts 
of the body with respect to a particular purpose. 

A position to be correct must have for its object 
correct power to execute with a free, uniform move¬ 
ment. 

Position must insure, 1. Ample light from the 
left. 2. Ample space. 3. Proper temperature. 4. 
Ease of the entire body. 

Positions differ owing to the style of hand, 
whether slant or vertical, etc., and because of the 
style and slant of the desk. 

CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIONS. 

I. Position of the Body. II. Position of the 
Fingers. III. Position of the Arms. IV. Posi¬ 
tion of the Feet and Lower Limbs. V. Position 
of the Eye. VI. The Class Position. 

I. POSITION OF THE BODY. 

THE front position. 

I. For Slant Writing —The body supporting 
itself fronts the desk or page to be written upon. 

To the Teacher.— The object sought in the position 
for vertical writing is a free, easy, rolling movement. 




Position. 


27 


As the body inclines forward let the bending be at 
the hips. The body must not touch the desk and 
both shoulders mnst be of the same height with the 
arms resting upon the desk nearly up to the elbows. 
The straight downward stroke may and does vary 
from five to twenty-seven degrees. That is, by com¬ 
paring the writings of leading penmen it is found 
that the slant varies, at present, from sixty to thirty- 
seven degrees. 

2. For Vertical Writing —The body supports it¬ 
self, fronts the page to be written upon, inclines 
forward with shoulders normal and either with the 
arms resting upon the desk nearly up to the elbows 
with the right elbow moved away from the body 
until the strokes are perpendicular when the desks 
are flat, or with the right arm suspended easily at 
the side resting lightly on the forearm just above 
the wrist where the desks are sloping. 

The Right Position is the body turned half way 
round to the left, the right side coming next the 
desk. 

The Right Oblique Position is the body turned 
midway between the front and right. 

The Front Position is the hygienic position, be¬ 
cause the body is self supporting, the respiration 
and circulation are unimpeded, the shoulders are 
normal, the arms and hands are* free and the body 
is in harmony. Therefore, all other positions of the 
body may well be dispensed with. 


28 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


EXERCISES TO SECURE CORRECT POSITION OF THE BODY. 

1. Sit upright. 

2. Throw back the shoulders. 

3. Force all the air possible into the lungs — 
[complemental air plus the tidal air.] 

4. Force all the air possible out of the lungs—(re¬ 
serve air plus the tidal air.) 

5. Breathe normal — (tidal air.) 

6. Kaise and lower the shoulders. 

7. Swing the weight of the arms from the 
shoulders. 

8. Suspend elbows easily at the side of the 
body. 

9. Place the arms on the desk. 

10. Incline forward without bending the vertebral 
column. 

II. POSITION OP THE FINGERS. 

The third and fourth fingers should be partially 
flexed to form the “hand rest.” The inner portion of 
the thumb should be opposite the first articulation 
of the index finger as the latter rests on the pen¬ 
holder. The second finger should partially support 
the holder at the root of the nail. The hand must 
be in pronation, and all joints of the fingers and 
thumb bend forwards. 

Pen-prehension is the act of taking hold of the 
pen preparatory to writing. 


Position. 


29 


Poising is the manner of holding the pen and con¬ 
sists in placing the muscles of the hand, forearm 
and arm in equi-ponderance or easy balance. 

The First and Second Fingers should extend out 
nearly their full length in pen-prehension and 
poising. 

Both Points of the Pen must be placed equally 
on the paper by the proper degree of pronation 
without moving the fingers. 

The Sliding Rest is the hand rest in motion. 
And a correct position of the fingers or hand must 
insure a sweep of the pen’s point across the page 
without supination. 

The Arch of the Arm is understood to mean from 
the sliding rest to the arm rest below the elbow. 

The Hands are usually situated from four to six 
inches apart, upon the desk, when writing. 

EXERCISES TO SECURE CORRECT PEN-PREHENSION. 

1. Hold up the right hand with palm outward. 

2. Begin at the index finger and count u l, 2,3,4.” 

3. Separate 3 and 4 from 1 and 2. 

4. Drop 3 and 4 into the palm. 

5. Place the thumb against the last joint of the 
index finger. 

6. Flex and extend the thumb and first and sec¬ 
ond fingers — practice. 

7. Proper pen-prehension; write. 


30 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


III. POSITION OF THE ARMS. 

They should be placed upon the desk nearly up 
to the elbows. 

The business of the left arm is to adjust the 
page to be written upon to accommodate pen-pre¬ 
hension, poising, and the style or manner of exe¬ 
cution. 

The Right Arm — The position of the right arm is 
this — swinging from the shoulder, flexed at the 
elbow, with the forearm in pronation, and at right 
angles to the line, real or imaginary, to be written 
upon, and resting either upon the hand rest, and 
arm rest, either or neither. 

The chief end aimed at in pen-prehension and 
poising of the hand and arm is to secure correct 
power to execute with uniformity of movement. 
[Explained in the chapter on “ Movement. ”] 

In Vertical Writing the elbow is moved to the 
right, or farther away from the body, or the elbow 
may swing from the shoulder and only the hand and 
a portion of the forearm permitted to rest upon the 
desk — owing to the degree of slant presented by 
the surface of the desk. 

IY. POSITION OF THE FEET AND LOWER 
LIMBS. 

The feet should rest comfortably on the floor. No 
pressure should be made on the sciatic nerves suffi¬ 
cient to cause the limbs “ to go to sleep. ” 




Position. 


31 


As different persons vary as to size, and as the 
same person differs at different times in life, it fol¬ 
lows that the seats and writing desks should be 
carefully selected to suit those who are to make use 
of them. 

EXERCISES TO SECURE CORRECT POISING. 

1. Sit squarely fronting the desk. 

2. Lean forward, bending at the hips. 

3. Place the arms on the desk, [owing to the 
style of hand contemplated,] nearly up to the el¬ 
bows or swinging from the shoulder. 

4. Assume prehension and poise. 

5. Use the progressive movement which is 
sweeping the arm from left to right. 

6. Use the projective movement which is pro¬ 
jecting the hand or arm upward and downward. 

7. Take up the u sliding ” rest, repeat as in 5 
and 6. 

8. Take up both rests and repeat. 

9. Throw back the shoulders, expand the chest, 
etc. 

10. Place all muscles of the hand, arm and body 
m easy balance. 

V. POSITION OF THE EYE. 

Fifty per cent and over of all school children have 
imperfect eye-sight. 

The Position of the Eye should be from twelve to 
fifteen inches from the paper or manuscript with 
its center of motion nearly opposite the middle of 


32 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


the page. [Focal adjustment should receive first 
and continued attention.] 

Vision — The light passes through the cornea, 
aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor and is 
focused upon the retina, which impressions are con¬ 
veyed to the brain by the optic nerves, and thence 
results the sensation which is called vision. The 
amount of light admitted is regulated by the reflex 
movements of the iris — the pupil contracting in a 
bright light and dilating in a feeble light. Con¬ 
traction of the pupil is called myosis. Expansion of 
the pupil is called mydriasis. 

The Field of Vision is the area bounded by the 
most eccentric points which can be perceived while 
the line of vision (visual line) remains fixed upon a 
central point. It comprises all the parts seen indi¬ 
rectly around a central object seen directly. 

Refraction is that faculty of the eye by which 
parallel rays are brought to a focus upon the retina 
without any effort of accommodation, and depends 
upon the form of the globe and its refractive media. 

Accommodation is the power of the eye to adjust 
itself for vision at different distances. 

Sight and Touch are the two main mediums 
through which a knowledge of penmanship is ac¬ 
quired. 

Emmetropia —The state of refraction where paral¬ 
lel rays are brought to a focus upon the retina when 


Position. 


33 


the eye is at rest. The emmetropic eye is a perfect 
eye. 

Ametropia —This is a name given to all refractive 
conditions which deviate from emmetropia. 

Myopia — (Hypometropia, Brachymetropia and 
u Long Eye, ”) is where the parallel rays are focused 
in front of the retina and the divergent rays upon 
the retina. The optic axis is too long. This con¬ 
dition is corrected by concave glasses which should 
enable the writer to work at twelve to fifteen inches. 
They render parallel rays divergent enough to be 
united on the retina. 

Hypermetropia (“Far Sight,” “Flat Eye,”) is 
where the parallel rays are focused behind the 
retina. The optic axis is too short. This condition 
of refraction is corrected by convex glasses. 

Presbyopia, (FarSight, u 01d Man’s Eye,”) is a 
recession of the near point, beginning in youth and 
gradually increasing to old age, but is assumed to 
begin when thp near point has reached beyond 
eight or ten inches; easily corrected by convex 
GLASSES. 

Asthenopia, (“Weak Sight. ”) —After writing 
or reading for any length of time the letters become 
blurred and run into one another, eyes grow red, 
watery, hot, painful or fatigued. These symptoms 
vanish when work is laid aside. 


34 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Phosphenes or Photopsia, is where flashes of light, 
sparks, luminous rings, etc., are seen before the 
eyes, and are often symptoms of approaching head¬ 
ache. Work should be laid aside. 

Astigmatism, is where the refraction differs in 
different meridians owing to the want of symmetry 
in the refracting surfaces. The rays from a point 
are not reunited in a point when the eye is at rest. 
This condition of refraction is corrected by cylin¬ 
drical glasses which act like corresponding spheri¬ 
cal glasses in one meridian and like plane glasses in 
the meridian at right angles to this. 

Blind Spots — Indistinct areas in the field of vis¬ 
ion or where it disappears from view altogether, and 
shows that the nerve centers are at fault. 

Micropsia is where the letters or objects appear 
smaller than they really are and is a result of dis¬ 
turbance in the rods and cones of the retina. 

Diplopia (Double Vision) — is when the images 
are formed on different parts of the two retinae at 
the same time. Both visual lines are not fixed up¬ 
on the same object. [See “ Review Questions ” for 
fuller discussion.] 

Binocular Vision —It is important to the writer 
to know whether this exists. A simple test is to 
hold a pencil midway between the eye and print 
while reading. The pencil will not interfere with 
any part of the page if there is binocular vision; 


Position. 


35 


but if only one eye is used, the pencil will obscure 
the view in proportion to its size. 

Visual Angle is the angle enclosed between 
two lines drawn from the extremities of the object 
to the optical center of the eye. 

Color Blindness or Daltonism is the inability to 
distinguish colors. The Holmgren Test or “Worsted 
Test” shows one out of every fifty partially or 
wholly unfitted for service requiring accuracy in the 
perception of colors. 

The person being examined by the “Worsted 
Test, ” instead of naming colors selects from samples 
placing each in its appropriate bunch. 

VI. THE CLASS POSITION. 

The Class Position should be uniform and suited 
to the convenience of teaching and class-work. It 
should be suited to the desks and to the way the 
light comes into the room. Near-sighted pupils 
ought to be in front near the black-board. 


To the Teacher. — If these considerations of the abnor¬ 
mal conditions of the eye seem too abstruse for the pupil, 
they may be omitted until review. However, the care of 
the eye and its importance in penmanship and all other re¬ 
lations of life cannot be overestimated. The teacher or 
pupil should be quick to detect any abnormal conditions 
such as conjunctivitis, iritis, ulceration of the cornea, etc., 
and to have the same properly looked after and treated by 
a competent oculist or physician. 



36 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

Classes should be formed according to, (1) age, 
(2) sex, (3) habits, (4) temperament, and (5) de¬ 
velopment. 

The class position should always insure to each 
pupil of the class plenty of light, proper degree of 
temperature, ample space, and ease of the whole 
body. [Cuffs, rings, bracelets, etc., should be re¬ 
moved.] 

SYSTEM IN CLASS WORK. 

Order, which is the key to happiness and progress 
in the school room, is gained by system. Every de¬ 
tail must be brought under the dominion of system, 
whatever class exercises may be adopted. 

CLASS EXERCISES. 

1. Review the preceding lesson. 

2. The Boohs. — There should be two shelves in 
front of the teacher’s desk on the side next the 
pupils. Place the boys’ books on the upper, and 
the girls’ books on the lower shelf. Have pupils 
classified as heretofore indicated, or an equal num¬ 
ber of rows of seats for boys and the same for girls. 

3. The Pens. — All the pens should be gathered 
on Friday night and put in a small box [cigar box,] 
or one for the boys’ and also for the girls’ pens. On 
Monday morning pull all the old pens out with a 
small pair of pliers and insert new ones. Put the 
old pens in a box to be got by the pupils any time. 
[Buy pens by the gross.] 


Position. 


37 


4. Pen Wipers. — If nothing fancier, a piece of 
old muslin will do to cut up for pen wipers. 

5. Blotters. — Purchase blotting paper by the 
dozen sheets and cut it up in sizes to suit. 

6. Distribution of Copy Books. — The books be¬ 
ing on the shelves, signal one will bring all into 
“first position” — sitting erect. Number two will 
bring to their feet the pupils of the rear row of 
desks, who will move with the u leader ” [the one at 
the extreme left] towards the teacher’s desk; then 
each will take his books in his left hand and face 
about ready for distribution. [By watching the 
u leader” they distribute in unison.] Number three, 
each pupil opens his book and takes his pen. Num¬ 
ber four , each will hold his pen in a correct position. 
[Go over pen-prehension and poising.] Number 
five, each may begin writing on his “practice sheet.” 
[This will be varied owing to the work and advance¬ 
ment of the pupil.] 

7. Practice Paper. — Buy, and give each pupil 
ten or fifteen sheets of foolscap. If writing books 
are used, halve the sheets so they will fit in the 
writing book. 

8. Black-board Work. —Take up the copy, a word 
at a time, write it out and give instruction. [Vary, 
by allowing the pupils to use the board occasionally.] 

9. The Close. — After from twenty to thirty-five 
minutes have passed, give the next signal, six. All 
stop, wipe pens, use blotter, close books, sit in 


38 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


position. [If any do not, a tap with the pencil on 
the desk will answer.] 

Number seven will bring up the rear pupils, the 
books will be gathered and placed on the shelves. 

Let everything be brought under the dominion of 
system, and in the place of confusion and idleness 
there will be progress and happiness even in an 
exercise covering so much detail as a recitation in 
penmanship. 

The Question Method. — Give a list of ten ques¬ 
tions one day to be answered the next. 

The Topic Method. — Give a topic one day to be 
written upon and returned the next. Then mark 
thereon all criticisms owing to the pupil’s advance¬ 
ment. 

Assigning Lessons. — Assign a lesson — usually 
short — each day the same as you would in any 
other branch. Make a business of it as in orthog¬ 
raphy, geography, grammar, etc. [Read “ Sugges¬ 
tions ” following the preface in this book.] 

Letter writing, themes, etc., will receive attention 
in the chapter on u letter writing. ” 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Avoid light that dazzles the eye. The posi¬ 
tion should secure plenty of light without dazzling. 

2. Avoid a position facing a bright light or a 
window. 

The light should come from the side, preferably 
the left side and somewhat over the shoulder. 


Position. 


39 


3. Avoid using the eye too close to the paper. 

The position of the eye should be about fifteen 

inches from the paper. If there be any errors of 
refraction have it corrected by proper lenses. 

4. Avoid writing or reading after recent illness, 
or by twilight, or when the paper is bad as to qual¬ 
ity or color. 

5. Avoid bending the spine or bending the head 
over the paper. 

6. Avoid anything tight about the neck. 

7. Avoid cold feet or hands. The room should 
be comfortable when the thermometer [there should 
be one in every school room] shows sixty to seventy- 
five degrees Fahrenheit. 

RESULTS OF IMPROPER POSITIONS. 

Curvature of the spine from habitually taking a 
position that raises one shoulder above the line of 
the other. Drooping shoulders from a hunching of 
the shoulders or settling forwards too far. Hollow 
Breast or Pigeon’s Breast may result from writing 
day after day at a table or desk too low and flat, and 
the vital capacity of the lungs may be greatly im¬ 
paired. Myopia and the various defects of vision 
may result from oblique positions or from a position 
facing the light of a lamp or window, in close ap¬ 
plication. Writer’s Cramp may be hastened by im¬ 
proper position. Neuralgia or sciatica, rheumatism, 
weak lungs, in fact a long list of diseases, may re¬ 
sult from improper position as to hygienic surround- 


40 


Science and Art'of Penmanship. 


ings. Carelessness in position will lead to irregu¬ 
larities and even deformities not only in muscle and 
bone, but an abnormal tonicity of the nerves may 
result which forebodes disaster to the harmony of 
thought and action. Focal adjustment should re¬ 
ceive first attention, it should be continued through¬ 
out, and all diseases of the eye should be quickly 
detected and corrected. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Define position. 

2. What is the object of a correct position ? 

3. What must position insure? 

4. Why do positions differ? 

5. Give the classification of positions. 

6. What is the front position (1) for slant, (2) 
for vertical hand ? 

7. What is the main object sought in the position 
for vertical hand ? 

8. What is meant by (1) the right, (2) right 
oblique position? 

9. Which is the hygienic position ? Give reasons. 

10. How would you secure correct position of the 
body ? 

11. Why expand the chest by deep inspiration 
and expiration? The mechanism of breathing is 
such that 600,000,000 air cells must be kept elastic 
so that the blood may be purified by the imbibi¬ 
tion of oxygen and exhalation of carbonic acid by 
osmosis which ultimately insures nervous energy 


Position. 


41 


and motion, besides insuring against any deformity 
of the chest walls or shoulders. 

12. Give the position of the fingers. 

13. What is understood by pen-prehension? 

14. What is poising ? 

15. What is the attitude of the first and second 
fingers in pen-prehension and poising ? 

16. How are both points of the pen to be placed 
equally on the paper? 

17. What is the sliding rest? 

18. What must a correct position of the fingers 
and hand insure ? 

19. What is the u arch of the arm ? ” 

20. How are the hands situated with reference to 
each other? 

21. How would you secure correct pen-prehen¬ 
sion? Give exercises. 

22. Give the position of the arms. 

23. What is the main business of the left arm ? 

24. Give the position of the right arm. 

25. What is the chief end aimed at in pen-pre¬ 
hension and poising? 

26. In assuming the position for vertical penman¬ 
ship, what deviation would be made from that of 
standard slant? Why? 

27. Discuss the position of the feet and lower 
limbs. 

28. What should determine the selection of writ¬ 
ing desks for pupils. 

29. How would you secure correct poising? 


42 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


30. What per cent of school children have imper¬ 
fect eyesight ? 

31. Give the position of the eye. 

32. What is understood by vision ? 

33. How is the amount of light admitted into the 
eye regulated ? 

34. Explain the terms myosis and mydriasis. 

35. What is meant by the field of vision ? 

36. What is refraction ? 

37. What is accommodation ? 

38. What medium is first in importance through 
which a knowledge of penmanship is acquired? 
Ans. Sight. 

39. What medium stands second ? Ans. Touch. 

40. Define Emmetropia. 

41. Define Ametropia. 

42. Define Myopia. Give synonyms. 

43. What kind of glasses correct Myopia ? 

44. Define Hypermetropia. Give synonyms. 

45. What kind of glasses correct Hypermetropia? 

46. What is Presbyopia ? Give synonyms. 

47. What kind of glasses correct Presbyopia? 

48. What is Asthenopia ? Photopsia? 

49. When these occur what should be done ? Ans. 
Pest or change to different work for awhile. 

50. What is meant by Astigmatism ? 

51. By what kind of glasses is Astigmatism cor¬ 
rected ? 

52. What are blind spots? Micropsia? 


Position. 


43 


53. When blind spots and Micropsia occur what 
is indicated ? 

Disturbance of the nerves and if work is forced 
upon the pupil there will result severe headache 
and nervous irritability. The chief remedy is recre¬ 
ation by change of work, or rest. 

54. What is Diplopia? 

55. What causes Diplopia ? Ans. Some derange¬ 
ment in the visual axes so that the images are not 
impressed on corresponding parts of the retina of 
each eye. It is a very grave symptom under cer¬ 
tain circumstances and in certain diseases. 

56. What is binocular vision ? 

57. Give a simple test for binocular vision. 

58. What is meant by the visual angle ? 

59. What is Daltonism or color blindness ? 

60. What per cent are color blind ? 

61. Give the Holmgren Test. 

62. What conditions should govern the class 
position ? 

63. How should classes be formed? 

64. What should the class position always insure 
to each pupil ? 

65. State how you would conduct a recitation in 
penmanship ? 

66. What is the Question method ? 

67. What is the Topic method? 

68. ' Repeat the cautions. 

69. What should be the temperature in which to 
secure good work ? 

70. Name and discuss some results of improper 
positions, carelessness, etc. 


44 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER III. 


ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 


f. Definitions. 

2. Principles... 


f 1. Lower Case.... 
I 


[ 2. Capitals. 


{ 


1. Primary. 

2. Secondary. 

1. Primary. 

2. Secondary. 


3. Principles of Form. 


4. Analytical Tables. 

5. Exercises. 

6. Classification of Letters. 

7. Order of Analysis. 

8. Models for Analysis. 

9. Exercises. 

10. View of Critical Analysis. 


1. Lower Case. 

2. Capitals. 


I I. Vertical Penmanship 


I 2. Exercises. 


f 1 . Properties of Letters. 

2. Analysis, etc. 

3. Comparisons, 

a J Conditions. 

L \ Effecting Work. 


I 3. Review Questions. 







Analysis and Synthesis. 


45 


CHAPTER III. 


ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

Penmanship is both a science and an art: As a 
science it investigates the principles of written lan¬ 
guage in general; as an art it teaches how to apply 
those principles to a correct record of thought, by 
means of forms, letters and words. 

Analysis is the separation of a letter, form or 
combination into its elements. 

Critical Analysis comprehends the relation any 
part bears to the entire field of penmanship. To> 
know how any object of thought differs from all 
other things and how it resembles them is, to* 
know all about it. It consists then, (1) in point¬ 
ing out principles and elements and the relation 
they bear to each other in letters, words, sentences 
and parts of sentences. (2) In pointing out resem¬ 
blances and differences as compared with each other r 
the lines of Position and Arrangement; regularity^ 
uniformity and conformity to the usages of the best 
authors. 

Synthesis is the construction of letters, forms and 
combinations from principles and elements. 

The Alphabet is the letters of a language. 



46 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The Invention of Letters is the foundation of all 
written language. 

Written Language is the expression of thought by 
means of written or printed characters. 

Language, in general, is any method of communi¬ 
cating thought or feeling. 

A Letter is a character used to represent one or 
more elementary sounds. 

An Element is one of the visible parts of a letter, 
form or combination. 

The Name of a letter, form or combination is the 
term by which it is known. 

The Properties ot a letter, form or combination 
is whatever belongs to it. 

Letters are Combined by combining elements— 
that is by movements from left to right without 
raising the pen. 

A Principle is one of the essential parts of a letter, 
form or combination. 

The Line of Arrangement is the base line, real or 
imaginary, on which the shortest letters rest. It is 
commonly ruled upon paper in its manufacture. 

Alignment is placing letters, forms or combina¬ 
tions in line with each other. 

The Line of Position is either vertical or inclined 
toward the line of arrangement. 

The Head Line is the line, real or imaginary, to 
which the shortest letters extend. 


Analysis and Synthesis. 


47 


The Form or Figure of a line depends upon the 
relative position of dots or points in that line. 

A Line may be conceived as generated by a dot 
or point in motion. 

A Curved Line changes its direction at every 
point. 

A Broken Line is a series of connected straight 
lines. 

Initial Curves begin, and Final Curves end let¬ 
ters, words, and forms. 

Written Articulation is the blending of lines so as 
to join letters. 

A Horizontal Right Curve is one extending in a 
horizontal direction with its concavity upwards. 

A Horizontal Left Curve is one extending in a 
horizontal direction with its concavity downwards. 

A Character is a distinctive mark or sign. 

An Angle is the difference in direction of two 
straight lines, and its magnitude is the extent of 
opening of its sides. 

A Point is the angular joining of two straight 
lines. 

Standard Slant is the distance from the lower left- 
hand corner to the opposite upper corner of a rec¬ 
tangular form 3 wide by 4 high. The angle of 
straight lines or strokes , varies from 52 to 37 degrees 
from the perpendicular, owing to the style of hand. 

The Standard Angle of the Curves is 30 deg. This 
is also termed Connective Slant. 


48 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The difference between the slant of straight lines 
and curves is 23 deg. This is the Angle of Legi¬ 
bility. 

The Slant of Curves is measured by a straight 
line, real or imaginary, passing through the longest 
direction. 

The Law of Combinations, also called the “Law 
of Relations,” is the changes, unrelated parts, or 
principles assumed in the formation of combi¬ 
nations. 

In Vertical Penmanship the angle of the strokes 
is 0 degrees, while the angle of legibility and of 
curves is 45 degrees. 

To the Teacher. — By way of illustration, many defini¬ 
tions may be turned to better account in forming proper 
concepts. Be guided in this by the pupil’s aptness to dis¬ 
cern. 



Principles of Penmanship. 


49 


PRINCIPLES OF PENMANSHIP. 
CLASSIFICATION. 

I. Primary Principles of Lower Case Letters. 

II. Secondary Principles of Lower Case Letters. 

III. Primary Principles of Capital Letters. 

IV. Secondary Principles of Capital Letters. 

I* PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF LOWER CASE 
LETTERS. 

There are four primary, also called Elementary 
principles. 

1. The Dot or point. 

2. The Straight Line . / 



3. The Right Curve 

4. The Left Curve. , 



The Dot is a mark having position without exten¬ 
sion. 

It is the touch of the pen’s point. 

A line may be conceived as generated by a point 
or dot in motion. 


USES OF THE DOT. 


1. To indicate the completeness in the forma¬ 
tion of i and j. 

2. To indicate completeness at the end of a 
word or sentence. 






50 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


3. To indicate abbreviations, but not taking, in 
this situation, the place of other points. 

4. To separate dollars and cents. 

5. To be placed before decimals. 

6. To assist in forming various punctuation marks. 
The Straight Line, is one that does not bend, but 

has the same direction throughout its length. It is 
a continuation of the touch of the pen’s point, gen¬ 
erated by a dot in motion. 

USES OF THE STRAIGHT LINE. 

1. To give extension or length. 

2. To govern slant. 

3. To govern arrangement. 

4. To preserve regularity and order. 

5. To give precision. 

6. To express meaning always in relation with 
letters and forms. 

7. To indicate the size of letters by being placed 
under them. 

8. To form parallels, etc., in punctuation marks. 

9. To make up the framework of letters and forms. 

10. To write the parts of a compound word 

(Hyphen), etc. 

The Right Curve is the right side, or part thereof, 
of an oval. 

It is a continuation of the touch of the pen’s 
point. 


Principles of Penmanship. 


51 


USES OF THE RIGHT CURVE. 

1. To show extension in an opposite direction to 
the left curve. 

2. To vary direction at every point showing any 
curvature. 

3. To unite the framework of letters and forms. 

4. To express fulness of form and appearance. 

5. To insure forward and return movement. 

6. To connect body elements. 

7. To aid in forming u curves,” breve, ma¬ 
cron, etc., in punctuation marks. 

The Left Curve is the left side or part thereof, of 
an oval. It is a continuation of the touch of the 
pen’s point. 

USES OF THE LEFT CURVE. 

1. To show extension in an opposite direction to 
the right curve. 

2. To vary direction at every point showing cur¬ 
vature. 

3. To unite the framework of letters and forms. 

4. To express fulness of form and appearance. 

5. To insure return and forward movement. 

6. To connect body elements. 

7. To aid in forming punctuation marks. 

USES OF THE FIRST OR PRIMARY PRINCIPLES AS SEEN 
IN WORDS. 

1. To insure extension as to height and width. 

2. To accomplish complete written articula¬ 
tion. 


/ 


52 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


3. To give continuity, legibility, fulness and 
beauty. 

4. To give precision in parallelism. 

5. To insure regularity and precision in form. 

6. To give ornamentation and punctuation. 

7. To form the basis of every variety of form in 
penmanship, punctuation and drawing. 

II. SECONDARY PRINCIPLES OF LOWER CASE 
LETTERS. 

The following are the Secondary or Basic Parts of 
the small letters, called Secondary Principles, or 
“ Combined ” Principles: 

1. The Oval. 

2. The Pointed Oval. 

3. The Hook—Standard and extended. 

4. The Inverted Hook. 

5. The Double Hook. 

6. The Upper Loop. 

7. The Lower Loop. 

8. The Fold. 

9. The Point. 

10. The Compound Curve. 

11. The Turn. 

The Oval is a figure representing very nearly the 
outline of an egg, and is the best example of an 
irregular curved form. 

The Circle would be a regular curved form. 


Principles of Penmanship. 


53 


The Pointed Oval is the u a” oval and is some¬ 
times called the u modified pointed oval,” really 
meaning that it is small a, minus the hook. 

The Hook is a combined straight line and curve. 

The standard hook is one space in height. 

The extended hook extends one space above the 
head line. 

The hook is also called the “direct semi-angle.” 

The Inverted Hook is one which assumes contrary 
relations to the head and base line. 

It is also called the u inverse semi-angle.” 

The Double Hook is the union of two hooks, one of 
which is inverted. 

It is frequently referred to as the “ combined 
semi-angle.” 

A Modified Hook is one in which the extent of 
opening of its sides is changed, and may be either 
single or double. 

The Upper Loop is a small space enclosed by lines 
crossing themselves above the base line. 

The Lower Loop is a small space enclosed by 
lines crossing themselves at the base line, the loop 
being below it. 

The Fold is a space almost, or entirely, enclosed, 
but instead of the lines crossing as in loops, they run 
parallel. In f both loop and fold enclose spaces, 
and in q they run parallel. 

The Point is the limit of the angular joining of two 
lines. The angle is usually acute. 


54 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The Turn is the merging of one line into another 
changing its direction at every point without stop¬ 
ping motion. 

The Compound Curve is one formed by continuous 
right and left curves, the direction being changed at 
every point. The simple curves or primary prin¬ 
ciples which make up a compound curve are either 
convex or concave; convex arch over and concave 
bend under a horizontal line. This gives rise to two 
classes of compound curves as follows : If the fcurve 
beginning the compound is convex, it is termed con¬ 
vexo-concave , but if the beginning curve is concave, 
it is termed concavo-convex. 

Note : For the analogues of small letters see chapter on 
Execution. 

PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF FORM OR DRAWING 
IDENTICAL WITH LETTERS. 

The Primary or Elementary Principles o i form 
are, (1) the dot, (2) the straight line, (3) the 
right curve, (4) the left curve. 

These principles are the foundation of any form 
the mind can conceive. 

Form in penmanship is the boundary of space. 

Angular Forms are produced by uniting straight 
lines. A square is the best example of a regular 
angular form 

Curved Forms are produced by uniting curved 
lines. The circle is the best example of a regular 
curved form. 


Principles of Penmanship. 


55 


Mixed Forms are produced by uniting straight 
and curved lines. The oval is the best example of 
an irregular curved form, and the u a oval” of a 
mixed form. A. series of dots is often used to show 
continuation of forms without extending lines. 

III. PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF CAPITAL LETTERS 

are the same as in lower case letters. The uses of 
the dot and straight line are restricted so that in 
Standard capitals the lines are all curves. 

In Current capitals where lower case letters are 
simply increased to the size of capitals, the straight 
line is preserved as in A, G, X, etc. 

The chief characteristics of the use of capital 
curves are, (1) that they are free from sudden turns, 
(2) that they are always parallel if running in the 
same direction, (3) that they are uniform. 

Owing to the Rules for Capital Letters they are 
executed singly in rectangular proportion of three 
wide to four high. 

The Analogues are sometimes spoken of as the 
primary principles of capitals. This should be cor¬ 
rected since the elementary principles—dot, straight 
line, right and left curves are capable of producing 
any form that man can conceive of. (For Ana¬ 
logues— Chap. V.) 

IV- SECONDARY PRINCIPLES-CAPITAL 

LETTERS. 

Note— Refer to Chapters V. and VI. for Capitals in 
Script. 


56 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The Secondary or Combined Principles of Capi¬ 
tals are as follows: 

1. The inverse oval in U, V, W,X, Y, Z, and Q. 

2. The direct oval in C, D, E, and O. 

3. The Stem Oval in P, B, and R. 

4. The Looped Stem in S, L, Y, Z, I, and J. 

5. The Central Connecting Loop or Tie in B, R, 
K, E, and Z. 

6. The Cap over T and F. 

7. The Capital Stem is very flexible and varies 
greatly in different letters, towit: N, M, A, T, F, P, 
B, R, S, L, G, H, I, J, K. 

ANALYTICAL TABLES 

of lower case and capitals, showing curves, lines, 
loops, folds, points, turns, ties, hooks, ovals, crossing 
marks, dots, slant, length and shade. 

To the Teacher. — It will be found an excellent means 
of acquainting the pupil with correct forms and good ideals 
of letters to have him construct tables similar to the fol¬ 
lowing of all the letters of any “system” in use in the 
schools. 

For varieties in letters, see chapter on “ Practice.” 


Analysis and Synthesis of Small Letters. 






















































































































































Analysis and Synthesis of the Capital Letters 


































































































































CLASSIFICATION OF LOWEE CASE WITH RESPECT TO LENGTH. 


Principles of Penmanship. 




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60 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


ORDER OF ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE LETTERS. 

1. Name the letter stating, (1) whether lower 
case or capital, (2) whether body or extension if 
lower case and (3) whether stem, oval, or looped, if 
capital. 

2. Give the primary principles or single ele¬ 
ments. 

3. Give the secondary principles or combined 
elements. 

4. General consideration. 


MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 






is a letter; lower case; body; its primary 
principles are left, left, right, straight, 
right: Its secondary principles are the pointed 
oval and the hook. General Consideration: It is 
thea-oval and semi-angle; by extending the straight 
line it forms d\ by adding the lower extension and 
omitting the final curve it forms q or g. 

is a letter; capital; stem; its primary 
principles are left, right, left; left, left: 
Its secondary principles are the capital stem, long 
left curve and crossing mark. General Considera¬ 
tion: It belongs to the capital stem class. The 
capital stem is a double compound curve, three 
spaces high and slanting forward sixty degrees from 
the perpendicular, the simple curves being joined in 
the middle a space and a half above the line of ar¬ 
rangement, and there is added the oval finish which 


^62 









Principles of Penmanship. 


61 


is one and a half spaces above the base line on an 
increased slant of about ten degrees measured by an 
imaginary line passing through the center of the 
oval and touching the center of the stem. The fin¬ 
ishing stroke of u A ” is thirty-seven degrees for¬ 
ward on the regular slant. The crossing mark be¬ 
gins at the head line for body letters. 

The capital stem, however, is capable of great 
variation from that in capital A, as will be seen by 
examinining by analysis N, M, A, T, F, P, B, R, S. 
L, G, H, I, J, and K. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Analyze the capitals having the oval finish, 
viz : A, N, M, T, and F. 

2. Analyze the stem-oval capitals, viz : P, B, R, 
G, H, and K. 

3. The four based on the ellipse, viz : O, D, E, C. 

4. The seven inverse-oval letters, viz : Z, X, W, 
Q, V, U, and Y. 

5. Analyze the body letters. 

6. Analyze the upper extension letters. 

7. Analyze the lower extension letters. 

To Teachers. — The exercises for analysis may be 
varied, adapting the work to the ages of the pupils in¬ 
structed. The members of your class must have good ideals 
of the letters. View the letter as a whole, tear it apart by 
pieces or principles ; show how the parts or principles 
build up the letters; how letters build words, and words 
build sentences. Deal largely with resemblances and dif¬ 
ferences or likes and unlikes of all the letters as compared 
with each other. 



62 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


8. Analyze the double extension letters. 

9. Analyze the short extension letters. 

10. Name all the letters one space in height. 

11. Name or execute all the letters three spaces 
in length. 

12. Name or execute all the letters two spaces in 
length. 

Critical analysis can only be secured step by step 
and will not be completed until the entire subject 
be studied and thoroughly reviewed. The best 
work is along the line of the pupil’s growth and de¬ 
velopment. 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS FOR WORDS, SENTENCES 
AND FORMS. 

1. Head the sentence or word. 

2. Point out and give reasons for (1) capitaliza¬ 
tion, (2) punctuation, (8) use of italics. 

3. Classify the hand-writing whether slant, ver¬ 
tical, or running. 

4. Discuss legibility, rapidity, beauty. 

5. Discuss alignment, parallelism and uniformity. 

6. Discuss shading and spacing. 

7. Discuss slant, measurement, etc. 

8. Discuss movement and execution in general 
and in particular necessary to its production. 

9. Discuss the Law of Combinations which runs 
throughout written articulation forcing the hitherto 
rigid theoretical parts of single letters to vary owing 
to the style and manner of combination. 

To Teachers. — As the parts of this order may seem too 
abstruse for the average pupil, they may be omitted until 
the book is reviewed. 



Vertical Penmanship. 


63 


VERTICAL PENMANSHIP. 

To the Teacher. — Analytical Tables should be con¬ 
structed, if vertical hand be preferred, similar to the fore¬ 
going, using the following vertical letters or the letters of 
whatever system has been introduced into your school. 


PROPORTION OF LETTERS. 

AS TO HEIGHT. 

1. All capital letters and all u long ” lower case 
letters are of the same height. 

2. The height of the u short ” lower case letters 
are half the height of capitals and also half the 
height of “ loop ” and u stem ” letters. 

3. The semi-extended letters are the same length 
as capitals, that is “ t ” and u d ’• extend as high 
above the line as the capital letters and u p ” and 
“ q ” as far below the line of arrangement as the 
capital letters do. 

4. No letter one space high is written higher or 
lower than another, in this style of writing. 


64 






Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Li 


Hi 


o e. T) c. 


SJ.qPRT? 


k k ^ (r m^i 


hiq ?mnm 


o ti m h.imk -x 


L in uj tl mn. irx on, s. c. n A 















Vertical Writing. 


65 


AS TO WIDTH. 

1. All the small letters are one space in width 
except u w” and “m.” 

2. The width varies owing to the size and style 
of the hand written. 


RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES. 

1. Those letters which may be made the same in 
lower case as in capitals differing only in size, are : 
a, c, k, m, n, o, p, q, s, u, v, w, x, y, z. 

2. Those made to resemble print as closely as 
possible (1) in lower case, are: k, d, t, p, q, z, h, 
-i, u, n, m, x, o, a, e, c, s and r. (2) In capitals, 0, 
C, S, P, Q, Z, H, X, T, F, B, R, V, W, Y, N, D, M, 
N,and Z. 

Remark'. — It must not be understood that so far 
as simplicity is concerned in this style of hand¬ 
writing that it can not be applied to standard slant, 
nor that the curves and loops of standard slant can 


66 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


not be applied to vertical band. Indeed, the placing 
of the elbow away from the side so that the pen 
makes vertical strokes, solves the whole problem. 
Farther than this it is a matter of taste and simpli¬ 
fication in securing speed, legibility, beauty, etc. 

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

The same method holds good in vertical as in 
standard slant and the dot, right curve, left curve 
and straight line are the foundation of all form in 
any style of letter or combination of letters. 

We are aiming at the wholeness of the science and 
art of penmanship. Every pupil and every teacher 
must endeavor to arrive at a correct idea of the 
relations of the parts of every letter, word or form. 
The objects of analysis and synthesis are to get clear 
images by studying relations, proportions, motive 
power, etc. In short, all that critical analysis com¬ 
prehends is essential to sift out all that is useful, 
and to hold fast to that which is good. 

All u systems ” whether u vertical, ” slant, ” 
“ intermedial, ” u simplified, ” etc., are only means 
to an end and that end is to secure a knowledge of 
the wholeness of the science and art of penmanship. 

The soul of art is beauty, and beauty of design 
rests on association which is its ruling and funda¬ 
mental principle/’ All u systems ” are modifica¬ 
tions in part and contributions towards the one 


Vertical Writing. 


67 


great aim or wholeness of the knowledge which ap¬ 
proaches to perfection in written language — the ex¬ 
pression of the thought of humanity by the use of 
written or printed characters. Combine them all, 
and there remains a partially reared structure, but 
which is gradually being shaped to perfection as the 
years go by. 


68 


Oblique System or Slant Hand. 


DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS, 

OR RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES. 

Oblique System, or Slant Hand.— 

1. Many prefer it. 

2. It is considered most rapid. 

3. It furnishes variety. 

4. Beauty is prominent. 

5. Shade is optional. 

6. Capital stem optional. 

7. The dot, straight line and curves used, 

8. Speed depends on position and movement. 

9. Joinings important. 

10. Degree of slant of strokes 37 degrees. 

11. Angle of legibility 23 degrees. 

12. Angle of curves 30 degrees. 

13. Projective and progressive movement. 

14. Lines optional to the taste. 

15. Short, long, semi-extended. 

16. Lower case and capital dissimilar. 

17. The smaller the faster. 

18. Letters seldom small as print. 

19. Hair strokes optional. 

20. Straight line may be substituted for the capi¬ 
tal stem. 

21. Loops may be substituted by straight lines. 

22. Insures beauty of curve. 

23. May be like or unlike print as the writer 
prefers. 


Vertical System or Vertical Hand. 


69 


DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS, 

OR RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES. 

Vertical System, or Vertical Hand.— 

1. Many prefer it. 

2. It is considered slaw. 

3. It lacks variety. 

4. Beauty is sacrificed. 

5. Shade is optional. 

6. The capital stem optional. 

7. The dot, straight line and curves used. 

8. Speed depends on position and movement. 

9. Joinings unimportant. 

10. Degree of slant of strokes 0 degrees. 

11. Angle of legibility 45 degrees. 

12. Angle of curves 45 degrees. 

13. ‘‘ Circular, ” u rolling ” movement. 

14. All lines are heavy or strong. 

15. Short and long letters only. 

16. Lower case and capital similar. 

17. The larger the plainer. 

18. Letters seldom small as print. 

19. Hair strokes optional. 

20. Straight line may be substituted for the capi¬ 
tal stem. 

21. Loops may be substituted by straight lines. 

22. Lacks beauty of curve. 

23. May be like or unlike print as the writer 
prefers. 


70 Oblique System or Slant Hand. 

24. May be set in type and printed. 

25. Great freedom. 

26. View slightly obstructed. 

27. Mostly executed by the progressive movement. 

28. All movements applicable. 

29. Connecting lines regarded as important. 

80. Front position most hygienic. 

31. Secures uniformity in direction. 

32. Whole arm and finger movements. 

33. Movements may be “ combined. ” 

34. Capitals are made up of beautiful curves. 

35. Maximum degree of movement. 

36. Technical execution in line with regularity 
and harmony in producing captivating figures in 
drawing, as birds, flowers, romantic ruins, animals, 
etc. 

37. In line with map drawing. 

38. Execution of a higher ordc^r of excellence, 
training higher and strengthening the motive power. 

39. Danger of writer’s cramp. 

40. The eye is trained to appreciate regularity, 
harmony and refined taste. 

We learn from a consideration like this, also, 
that there are extremes between which are certain 
means. 


Notice to the Teacher — Everything bearing on pen¬ 
manship must be sought in teaching one system as well as 
another. Aim at the whole field of penmanship. 



Vertical System or Vertical Hand. 


71 


24. May be set in type and printed. 

25. Does not admit of flourishing. 

26. View not interfered with by the pen point. 

27. Mostly executed by drawing the arm back¬ 
wards. 

28. All movements applicable. 

29. Connecting lines regarded as unimportant. 

80. Front position most hygienic. 

31. Secures uniformity in direction. 

32. Whole arm and finger movements. 

33. Movements may be u combined. ” 

34. Points, straight lines and curves in capitals. 

35. Minimum degree of movement. 

36. Technical execution in line with print. 


37. In line with map drawing. 

38. Execution of a high order of excellence. 

39. The danger of writer’s cramp not lessened. 

40. The eye is trained to appreciate regularity 
and harmony. 


72 


Conditions Effecting Good Work. 


CONDITIONS EFFECTING GOOD WORK. 

1. Temperature. 

If too low or too high, less work and poorest re¬ 
sult. 

If just right, most work and best result. 

2. Stimuli. 

If minimum, minor contraction. 

If maximum, major contraction. 

If medium, the best result and most work. 

3. Exercise. 

If not enough, weakening. 

If too violent, a loss of delicacy. 

If moderate, best result and most work. 

4. Blood Supply. 

If too weak, loss of power and faintness occurs. 

If too rapid, loss of co-ordination and trembling 
occurs. 

If normal, the best result and most work. 

5. Good connection of the writing instrument 
with the higher nerve centers. 

Muscle Tonus or Irritability is the power of re¬ 
sponding to a stimulus and may be called forth by 
variations in temperature, by chemical stimuli, by 
mechanical stimuli or by electricity. 

The nerve force, it must be remembered, is the 
normal stimuli during life. 

[The analysis of the conditions effecting good work may 
he made more critical after reviewing the chapter on 
■“ Movement, ” especially that part referring to the “ motor 
apparatus. ”] 



Examination List. 


73 


ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five lines on the subject, “The Dot.” 

2. Write ten lines on “ The Straight Line. ” 

3. Write ten lines on The Right Curve. ” 

4. Write ten lines on “ The Left Curve. ” 

5. Write five lines on “The Uses of Primary 
Principles in Words. ” 

6. Write twenty lines on “Combined Princi¬ 
ples. ” 

7. Write ten lines on “The Compound Curve.” 

8. Construct a table showing the simple and 
combined elements of the letters of any style of 
script you choose. 

9. Write twenty lines giving resemblances and 
differences of any two “ systems ” you may choose. 

10. Write fifteen lines on “The Conditions Ef¬ 
fecting Good Work. ” 

EXAMINATION LIST. 

1. What is penmanship ? 

2. What is analysis ? 

3. Wh^t does critical analysis comprehend ? 

4. What is synthesis? 

5. What is an alphabet ? 

6. What is the foundation of all written 
language ? 

7. What is written language? 

8. What is language in general? 

9. What is a letter ? 


74 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


10. What is an element? 

11. What is the name of a letter? 

12. What are the properties of a letter? 

13. How are letters combined ? 

14. What is a principle ? 

15. What is the line of arrangement? 

16. What is alignment? 

17. What is the line of position ? 

18. What is the head line ? 

19. On what does the form or figure of a line 
depend ? 

20. How may a line be conceived as generated ? 

21. What is a curved line? 

22. What is a broken line? 

23. Distinguish between initial and final curves. 
24 What is written articulation ? 

25. What is a horizontal right curve? 

26. What is a horizontal left curve ? 

27. What is a character ? 

28. What is an angle? 

29. What is a point? 

30. What is standard slant? 

31. What is the angle of straight lines? 

32. What is the angle of curves ? Connective 
slant? 

33. What is the angle of legibility ? 

34. What is the law of combination? 

35. How is the slant of curves measured? 

36. Classify the principles of lower case. 

37. Classify the principles of capitals. 


Examination List. 


75 


38. What is the dot ? How executed? 

39. Give six uses of the dot. 

40. What is a straight line ? How executed ? 

41. Give ten uses of the straight line. 

42. What is the right curve ? 

43. Give seven uses of the right curve. 

44. What is the left curve ? 

45. Give seven uses of the left curve. 

46. Give the uses of the primary principles in 
words. 

47. Name the secondary or combined principles 
of lower case 

48. What is an oval ? 

49. Give an example of a regular curved form. 

50. What is the pointed oval ? 

51. What is the hook? 

52. What is the standard hook ? 

53. What is the extended hook ? 

54. What other name has the hook ? 

55. What is the inverted hook? 

56. What other name is given the inverted hook ? 

57. What is the double hook ? 

58. What other name is given the double hook ? 

59. What is a modified hook? 

60. What is the upper loop ? 

61. What is a fold ? Kinds. 

62. What is the point? 

63. What is a turn ? 

64. What is a compound curve? 

65. What is a convexo-concave curve ? Example. 


76 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


66. What is a concavo-convex curve ? Example. 

67. Primary principles of form and drawing are 
identical with what ? 

68. What is a form ? 

69. What are angular forms? 

70. Give the best example of an angular form. 

71. What are curved forms? Best example. 

72. What are mixed forms ? 

73. Give an example of an irregular curved form. 

74 Give an example of an irregular mixed form. 

75. How show the continuation of forms without 
continuous lines ? 

76. With what are the primary principles of 
capitals identical? 

77. What are the only kinds of lines found in 
u standard capitals ? ” 

78. In what capitals is the straight line pre¬ 
served ? 

79. Give the chief characteristics of capital 
curves. 

80. In what proportion are capital letters exe¬ 
cuted? 

81. Are analogues primary principles? Why? 

82. Name the secondary or combined principles 
of capitals. 

83. Group the letters containing the inverse oval. 

84. Group the letters containing the direct oval. 

85. Group the letters containing the stem oval. 

86. Group the letters containing the looped stem. 

87. Group the letters containing the tie. 


Examination List. 


77 


88. Group the letters containing the cap. 

89. What capitals are divided half above and 
half below the line of arrangement? 

90. Name fifteen letters in which the capital 
stem may be found, though varied. 

90-116. Give the analysis of lower case letters. 

117-143. Give the analysis of capitals. 

144-153. Give the analysis of figures. 

154. Give the law of combinations. 

155. Construct analytical tables using the vertical 
letters here given. 

156. Give the proportion of vertical letters as to 
height and width. 

157. Point out resemblances and differences in 
vertical letters. 

158. Repeat the “remark. ” 

159. What is true of analysis and synthesis in 
vertical writing? 

160. What is the object of vertical, slant, or ob¬ 
lique, intermedial, simplified, etc., systems ? 

161. Compare u systems ” to thirty or forty points. 

162. Name some conditions effecting good work. 






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Movement. 


79 


CHAPTER IV. 


I. Definition. 


MOVEMENT. 


2. Methods of 
Action 


3. Kinds of 

Movement 


fl. 



1. 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 


Prehension. 

Poising. 

Moving. 

Flexion. 

Extension. 

Abduction. 

Adduction. 

Circumduction. 

Rotation. 


4. Classes of 
Movement 


5. Definitions. 

6. Rests. 


7. Movements 
Permitted by 


1. Primary 


1 . Definition. 

2 . Names of 

1. Whole Arm. |- Muscles. 

3. Advantages. 
I 4. Explanation 


1. Definition. 

2 . Names of 
Muscles 

1 1 . Fore-arm. 

2 . Secondary ] 2 . Fore-arm and Finger, 

or Combined | 3 . Fore-arm and Arm. 

I 4. Arm, Fore-arm and Finger. 


2. Finger.. 


r 1. Arm. 

\ 2. Hand. 

13. Shoulder. 


Shoulder Joint 


f 1. Flexion. 

2. Extension. 

! 3. Abduction. 

4. Adduction. 

5. Circumduction. 

6. Rotation. 












80 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Movements 
Permitted by 

(Continued.) 


8. Motor 

Apparatus J ± 
in 

Penmanship 


2. Elbow Joint .. j j 


1. Flexion. 

2. Extension. 

3. Wrist Joint—all but Rotation. 

_ « T . A ,1. Flexion. 

4. Carpal Joints.. | 2 Extension . 

5. Carpo-Metacarpal—all but Rotation. 

6. Metacarpo-Phalangeal—all but Rotation. 
1. Flexion. 


7. Phalangeal Joints { 2 _ Extension . 


8. The Eye \ 


1. Upward. 

2. Downward. 

3. Inward. 

4. Outward. 

5. Upward and Inward. 

6. Upward and Outward. 

7. Downward and Inward. 

8. Downward and Outward. 


f 


1. Classes 


f 1. As to Will j 1. Voluntary. 

Power \ 2. Involuntary. 


2. As to use 


1. Flexor. 

2. Extensor. 


3. Names from.. J 


Muscles - 


f 1. Direction. 

| 2. Uses. 

3. Situation. 

4. Shape. 

| 5. Number of Divisions. 
16. Points of Attachment. 


4. Origin 

5. Insertion 

6. Stimulus 

7. Action 

8. Function 

9. Hygiene 

10. Muscles of Upper 
Extremity 


1. Origin. 

2. Insertion. 

3. Nervous Supply. 

4. Action. 















Movement. 


81 


Motor 

Apparatus 

in 

Penmanshi p. 

(Continued.) 


1 . Divisions 


r 


2 . Nerves 


2 . Stimuli 

3. Function 

4. Action 
[5. Hygiene 

f 1. Scapula. 

2 . Arm—Humerus. 


j 3. Fore-arm 
3. Bones. ^ 


4. Hand 


| 5. Function. 

I 6. Hygienic Care. 

1. Definition. 

2 . History. 


1 . Cerebro-Spinal. 

2 . Sympathetic. 

1 . Automatic. 

2 . Sensory. 

3. Motor. 

4. Yaso-motor. 

5. Trophic, Etc. 


f 1. Radius. 

12 . Ulna. 

1 . Carpus (8). 

2 . Meta Carpus (5). 

3. Phalanges (14). 


3. Etiology (Cause)... ^disposing. 

12. Exciting. 

9. Writer’s f l. Cramp. 

Cramp 2 . Paresis. 

4. Symptoms ' S ' Tremor ' 

4. Pain. 

I 5. Vaso-motor and Trophic Dis- 
L turbances. 


I 0 Exercises. 

II. Review Questions- 










82 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER IV. 


MOVEMENT. 

Movement is the action in the execution of char¬ 
acters and their combinations. 

Methods of Action. 1. The act of prehension. 
2. The act of moving the pen. 3. The poising of 
the fore-arm and hand. 

CLASSES OF MOVEMENT. I. PRIMARY, II. SECONDARY. 

I. Primary Classification —1. Whole arm, 2. 
Finger movement. 

Whole Arm Movement— That movement produced 
by the action of the muscles of the arm, fore-arm, 
and hand, conjointly, in the formation of characters. 

Pen-prehension and Poising are accomplished in 
this movement by the muscles of the fore-arm and 
hand. A slight finger movement for the long strokes 
is allowable. 

The Moveable Fulcrum is the belly of the flexor 
muscles upon which the fore-arm rests. 

Poising of the Arm and Hand is accomplished by 
the supinators longus and brevis, and the extensors 
of the thumb. 

The Act of Moving the Pen, or forming the letters 
in this movement is mainly performed by the triceps, 
biceps, teres major, latissimus dorsi and pectoralis 
major, muscles. 



Movement. 


83 


Advantages of the Whole Arm Movement. — The 

largest number of muscles are brought into play 
and as a result a more even division of the work 
and less fatigue. 

Note.—E xplanation in substantiation of this movement 
as the primary movement. 1st. The elbow-joint admits only 
of flexion and extension. 2nd. The fore-arm is brought into 
pronation by the pronator radii teres {origin internal condyle 
of the humerus and insertion outer middle surface of the ra¬ 
dius). 3rd. No movement can be made on the “rest” of the 
flexor muscles of the fore-arm without moving the lower 
end of the humerus. 4th. The origin and insertion of the 
biceps and triceps are such that the former is flexor , the 
latter extensor to the elbow-joint — flexion and extension 
being its only movement. Therefore, no so-called “fore¬ 
arm movement” can take place without the action of the 
muscles attached to the shoulder blade and humerus , hence 
the whole arm movement is the primary movement, and 
first in importance. 

Finger Movement.— That movement produced 
by the action of the muscles of the finger and thumb 
in all strokes, the arm remaining quiescent except 
for lateral motion. 

The Act of Prehension in the finger movement 
is accomplished by the first two dorsal interossei, 
the apponens, abductor, adductor and flexors brevis 
and longus pollicis, and the extensors of the thumb. 

The Act of Moving the Pen and Poising in this 
movement is accomplished by the action of the 
flexors longus pollicis and profundus digitorum, and 
the extensors secundi internodii pollicis and com¬ 
munis digitorum and to a limited extent the in¬ 
terossei. 


84 


Science and* Art of Penmanship. 


The Arm and Hand Rests are fixed in this move¬ 
ment except for lateral motion. 

Uses of the Finger Movement —This movement 
is allowable in the execution of figures, single letters 
and short combinations. It is not, however, to be 
preferred to the whole arm movement, but is fre¬ 
quently auxiliary thereto. 

2. Secondary Classification. —1. Fore arm. 2. 
Fore-arm and finger. 3. Fore-arm, finger, and arm. 
4. Fore-arm and arm. 

Combined Movements are the various combina¬ 
tions of the acts of muscles as a result of the whole 
arm and finger movements. 

The Fore-Arm Movement is by far the most im¬ 
portant of any of the combined movements. 

The Arm Rest is the upper third of the fore-arm 
on the flexor muscles below the elbow, when the 
fore-arm is in pronation. 

The Hand Rest is on the nails of the third and 
fourth fingers flexed when the fore-arm and hand are 
in pronation. 

The Wrist and right side of the hand should never 
be permitted by supination to the extent of touching 
the paper. Not only does it interfere with motion, 
but is liable on account of perspiration to moisten 
the paper so the ink will spread or blur. 

The Foundation of Penmanship is easy and well 
controlled action of the muscles in poising, pen- 


Movement. 


85 


prehension and formation of characters, and compre¬ 
hends not only a thorough knowledge of the-constit¬ 
uent parts ot characters, but also of the motor ap¬ 
paratus called upon to produce the act, 

“ Muscular Movement ” is understood to mean 
that in which the hand is propelled by the arm 
muscles, the finger muscles remaining quiescent. 

The following expressions of movement are often 
convenient and self-explanatory : u Over rolling,” 
•‘under rolling,” “ loop movement,” “ capital move¬ 
ment, ’ “drawing movement,” “rotary movement,” 
“double wave movement,” “swinging movement,” 
“projected,” “progressive,” “lateral,” “forward,” 
“backward,” “combined,” etc., etc. 

Projected Movement is upward or downward. 

Progressive Movement is to the right or to the 
left across the page. Other movements are derived 
from these two. 

The rate of speed in movement should always be 
at a good rate and gradually increasing as 'practice 
goes on from 90 to 140 counts and higher. Each 
stroke, long or short, should be made at one count or 
tick of the metronome or time to music if it be 
used. 

Movement Drill. —A movement drill of ten or fif¬ 
teen minutes should always be practiced before be¬ 
ginning the regular writing lesson. It may consist 
of open-spaced work, of encircling letters or words, 
swinging right and left, executing capitals, groups’ 


86 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


etc., tracing with dry pen, whole arm movements in 
the air, polygrams, etc. 

The Test of Movement is to keep the pen in 

motion in close-spaced writing. 

Flexion. — That motion of the joint which gives 
the distal member a continually decreasing angle 
with the axis of the proximate part. 

Extension. — That motion of the joint which in¬ 
creases the angle even to its disappearance. 

Abduction. — The action by which the parts of the 
body are drawn away from the median line or axis. 

Adduction. — The action by which the parts of the 
body are drawn toward its axis or median line. 

Circumduction. —The act of describing lines in 
any direction or rambling about around the median 
line. 

Rotation. — The act of turning or rotating par¬ 
tially or wholly around the axis or median line. 

The Axis. — The imaginary line passing through 
the human body or its parts on which it or they 
may be supposed to revolve. 

The Median Line is an ideal line dividing the 
body longitudinally and symmetrically into two 
parts, the one on the right and the other on the left. 
When reference is made to the arm, etc., it is the 
imaginary line running through the middle. 

Execution is the formation of characters in visible 
language. 


Movement. 


87 


Movement is the action in the execution of 
characters and their combinations, and is allowed 
and maintained mainly by the agency of the nerves, 
bones, muscles, and joints. 

The Arm is situated between the shoulder and 
the elbow and is composed of one bone — the 
humerus. 

The Shoulder Joint is a ball-and-socket joint; and 
the bones entering into its formation are the 
large globular head of the humerus received into 
the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula, — an 
arrangement which permits of movement in every 
direction, forwards, backwards, abduction, adduction, 
circumduction, and rotation. 

The Fore-arm is situated between the elbow and 
wrist, and is composed of two bones—the ulna and 
the radius. 

The Elbow Joint is a hinge-joint and is formed by 
the trochlear surface of the humerus which is 
received into the greater sigmoid cavity of the ulna 
and admits of movements peculiar to this joint, 
those of flexion and extension, while the head of the 
radius articulating with the humerus, and the cir¬ 
cumference of the head of the radius with the 
sigmoid cavity of the ulna allows of the movement 
of rotation of the radius on the ulna which is the 
chief action of the superior radio ulnar articulation. 
The movement which occurs in the inferior radio¬ 
ulnar articulation ( i . e. at the lower end of the radius 


88 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


and ulna), is limited to rotation of the radius round 
the head of the ulna—if forwards it is pvonation\ if 
backwards, supination. 

The Wrist Joint. — The flexor tendons cover it in 
front and the extensors behind. The movements 
permitted are flexion , extension , abduction , adduc¬ 
tion and circumduction . It is totally incapable of 
rotation. 

Articulations of Carpal Bones. —The movement 
between the two rows is limited chiefly to flexion 
and extension. 

Carpo metacarpal Articulations— The movement 
is limited to a slight gliding of the articular surfaces 
upon each other which varies in different joints. 
The metacarpal of the thumb with the trapezium is 
most moveable permitting flexion , extension , adduc¬ 
tion , abduction , and circumduction. 

Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulations. —The move¬ 
ments permitted by these joints are flexion , exten¬ 
sion. adduction , abduction , and circumduction. The 
lateral movements are very limited. 

Phalangeal Joints. —The only movements are flex¬ 
ion and extension , and more extensive between the 
first and second phalanges than between the second 
and third. The movement of flexion is very consid¬ 
erable but the extension is limited. 

The Motor Apparatus. —This may be classed under 
three heads, viz : — 


Movement. 


89 


I, MUSCLES. II r NERVES. Ill, BONES. 

I. Muscles. —With respect to the will they are 
either voluntary or involuntary . 

The voluntary are controlled by the will and may 
be educated. The involuntary are not under control 
of the will. With respect to use they are either 
flexors or extensors. The flexors pass under joints 
and the extensors pass over. 

The Names of Muscles have been derived from 
their situation, direction, uses, shape, number of di¬ 
visions, and from their points of attachment. 

Muscle Stimulus. — The stimulus is vital, i. e., 
through the nervous system which governs all mus¬ 
cular movement and all processes of organic life. 
Some authors mention mechanical, chemical, and 
electrical stimulus, but these divisions may well be 
dispensed with. 

The Origin of a Muscle is the central attachment 
or attachments. 

The Insertion of a Muscle is the point or points 
upon which it is directed. 

The Function or Use of Muscles.— Of the volun¬ 
tary to obey the will, that is to give power of loco¬ 
motion, ability for work, to communicate either in 
written language or otherwise. Of the involuntary , 
to control circulation, respiration, paristalsis and 
such acts as are uncontrolled by the will. 


90 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The Eye. —The eye is moved by 6 muscles — 4 
recti and 2 oblique. 


MOVEMENT. MUSCLE. 

Upward.Sup. rectus and inf. oblique. 

Downward. Inf. rectus and sup. oblique* 

Inward ..Internal rectus. 

Outward.External rectus. 

Upward and inward-Sup. and int. recti and inf. oblique. 

Upward and outward .. .Sup. and ext. recti and inf. oblique. 


Downward and inward. .Inf. and int. recti and sup. oblique. 
Downward and outward Inf. and ext. recti and sup. oblique. 

The Centre of Motion lies on the optic axis 1.77 
mm. (about 1-14 inch) behind its centre. 

The Muscle Plane is the plane passing throdgh 
the center of motion. 

The Base Line is the line connecting the centers 
of motion. 

The Axis of Turning is the perpendicular to the 
muscle plane at the turning point. 

Muscles of the Upper Extremity giving their 
origin and insertion and nervous supply. The — 
dash divides the origin from the insertion, and the 
nervous supply is indicated by [ ] brackets. 

UPPER EXTREMITY. 

MUSCLES. 

(i) ANTERIOR THORACIC REGION, 3. 

Pectora’lis maj’or: sternal half clavicle, ■£ front 
of sternum down to 7th rib, cartilage of true ribs, 






Upper Extremity. 


91 


aponeurosis — external oblique — anterior bicipital 
ridge of humerus. [Anterior thoracic.] 

Pectora’lis mi’nor: 3d, 4th and 5th ribs — ante¬ 
rior border coracoid process of scapula. [Anterior 
thoracic.] 

Subcla’vius : 1st rib-cartilage — under surface 
middle 3d of clavicle. [Branch from 5th and 6th 
cervical.] 

(2) LATERAL THORACIC REGION. 

Sirra’tus mag’nus: 9 digitations from the 8 su¬ 
perior ribs — whole length inner margin scapula,, 
posterior surface. [Posterior thoracic,] 

(3) ACROMIAL REGION, 1. 

Del toide us : outer 3d anterior border, upon sur¬ 
face, of clavicle, outer margin, upper surface acro- 
mian process; whole length lower border spine of 
scapula — prominence outer surface (middle) hu¬ 
merus. [Circumflex.] 

(4) ANTERIOR SCAPULAR REGION, 1. 

Subscapula’ris : inner f subscapular fossa—les¬ 
ser tuberosity humerus. [Subscapular.] 

(5) POSTERIOR SCAPULAR REGION, 4. 

Supra-spina’tus : internal J of supra-spinous fossa 
of scapula—upper facet greater tuberosity humerus.. 
[Supra-scapular.] 

Infra-spina’tus : internal f of infra-spinous fossa 
— middle facet greater tuberosity humerus. [Supra¬ 
scapular.] 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


92 

Te’ res mi’nor : dorso-axillary border scapula — 
lowest facet greater tuberosity of humerus. [Cir¬ 
cumflex.] 

Te’ res ma’jor : dorsum inferior angle scapula — 
posterior bicipital ridge humerus. [Subscapular.] 

(6) ANTERIOR HUMERAL REGION, 3. 

Coraco-brachia’lis : apex coracoid process scap¬ 
ula— rough ridge inner (middle) side of humerus. 
[ Musculo-cutaneous.] 

Bi’ceps : long head above glenoid cavity; short 
head, coracoid process — bicipital tuberosity radius. 
[Musculo-cutaneous.] 

Brachia’lis anticus : lower half ohter and inner 
surfaces shaft humerus, septa — under surface coro- 
noid process ulna. [Musculo-cutaneous, musculo- 
spiral.] 

(7) POSTERIOR HUMERAL REGION, 2. 

Tri’ceps: long head, depression below glenoid 
cavity; external head, posterior superior part of hu¬ 
merus; internal head posterior surface of humerus 
below musculo-spiral groove — olecranon process 
ulna. [Musculo-spiral.] 

Subancone’us : just above olecranon fossa hu¬ 
merus— posterior ligament elbow-joint. [Musculo- 
spiral.] 

(8) ANTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION. SUPERFICIAL LAYER, 5. 

Prona’tor ra’dii teres : above internal condyle 
ihumerus, common flexor tendon, fascia, inner side 


Upper Extremity. 


93 


coronoid process ulna — rough ridge radius, outer 
(middle) surface. [Median.] 

Flex’or car’pi radia’lis: common flexor tendon, 
internal condyle humerus, fascia—base of index 
metacarpal. [Median.] 

Palma’ris longus : common internal condyloid 
(humerus) flexor tendon, fascia—annular ligament 
and palmar fascia. [Median.] 

Flex’or car’pi ulna’ris : 1st head, common flexor 
tendon internal condyle humerus; 2d head, internal 
margin olecranon — pisiform bone. [Ulnar.] 

Flex’or subli’mis digito’rum: 1st, internal con¬ 
dyle humerus (common flexor tendon); 2d head, 
inner side coronoid process ulna; 3d head oblique 
line radius — lateral margins 2d phalanges, tendon 
split for passage of flexor profundus digitorum. 
[Median.] 

(9) ANTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION, DEEP LAYER, 3. 

Flex’or profun’dus digito’rum : upper f anterior 
and inner surface ulna, inner side coronoid process 
interosseous membrane — bases last phalanges. [Ul¬ 
nar, anterior interosseous.] 

Flex’or lon’gus pol’licis : upper f anterior sur¬ 
face radius, interosseous membrane — base last 
phalanx thumb. [Anterior interosseous.] 

Prona’tor quadra’tus : oblique line and lower 4th 
ulna — lower 4th anterior surface and external bor¬ 
der radius. [Anterior interosseous.] 


94 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


(10) RADIAL REGION, 3. 

Supina’tor lon’gus: upper f external condyloid 
ridge humerus, septum — styloid process radius. 
[Musculo-spiral.] 

Exten’sor car’pi radia’lis longior: lower third 
external condyloid ridge humerus, septum-—base 
metacarpus indicis. [Musculo-spiral.] 

Exten’sor car’pi radia’lis bre’vior: common ten¬ 
don external condyle humerus, external lateral liga¬ 
ment, septa — base metacarpus middle finger. [Pos 
terior interosseous.] 

(il) POSTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION, SUPERFICIAL LAYER, 4. 

Exten’sor commu’nis digito’rum : common ten¬ 
don external condyle humerus, septa — 2d and 3d 
phalanges. [Posterior interosseous.] 

Exten’sor min’imi dig’iti : external condyle hu¬ 
merus, septa — unites with tendon extensor commu¬ 
nis digitorum to be inserted into 2d and 3d phalanges 
of little finger. [Posterior interosseous.] 

Exten’sor car’pi ulna’ris : common tendon exter¬ 
nal condyle humerus, middle 3d posterior border 
ulna, fascia — base 5th metacarpus. [Posterior in¬ 
terosseous.] 

Ancone’us : back part outer condyle humerus — 
side, olecranon and upper posterior 3d ulna. [Mus¬ 
culo-spiral.] 


Upper Extremity. 


95 

(12) POSTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION, DEEP LAYER, 5. 

SLipina tor brevis : external condyle humerus, 
external lateral and orbicular ligaments, oblique 
line ulna—(surrounds radius at its upper part) back 
part inner surface; outer edge bicipital tuberosity ; 
oblique line of radius. [Posterior interosseous.] 

Exten’sor os’is metacar’pi poTlicis : posterior 
surface shaft ulna and radius (middle 3d), interosse¬ 
ous membrane — base 1st metacarpus. [Posterior 
interosseous.] 

Exten’sor pri’mi interno’dii pol’licis : posterior 
surface radius, interosseous membrane — base 1st 
phalanx thumb. [Posterior interosseous.] 

Exten’sor secun’di interno’dii pol’licis: posterio 
face ulna, interosseous membrane — base 2d phalanx 
thumb. [Posterior interosseous.] 

Exten’sor in’dicis: posterior surface ulna, inter¬ 
osseous membrane—joins tendon extensor com¬ 
munis digitorum to 2d and 3d phalanges indicis. 
[Posterior interosseous.] 

(13) THLMB, RADIAL REGION, 4. 

Abduc’tor pol’licis : ridge trapezium and annular 
ligament — radial side base 1st phalanx thumb. 
[Median.] 

Oppo’nens pol licis: palmar surface trapezium, 
annular ligament — whole length 1st metacarpus, 
radial side. [Median.] 


96 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Flex’or bre’vis pol’licis: trapezium, outer f an¬ 
nular ligament, trapezoid, os magnum, base 3d meta¬ 
carpus, tendon flexor carpi radialis — both sides base 
1st phalanx thumb. [Median, ulnar.] 

Adduc’tor pol’licis : whole length 3d metacarpus 

— ulnar side base 1st phalanx thumb. [Ulnar.] 

(14) LITTLE FINGER, ULNAR REGION, 4. 

Palma’ris bre’vis: annular ligament palmar fascia 

— skin inner border palm. [Ulnar.] 

Abduc’tor min’imi dig’iti: pisiform bone, tendon 
flexor carpi ulnaris — ulnar side base 1st phalanx 
little finger. [Ulnar.] 

Flex’or bre’vis min’imi dig’iti : tip unciform, pro¬ 
cess annular ligament—base 1st phalanx little finger. 
[Ulnar.] 

Oppo’nens min’imi dig’iti : unciform process an¬ 
nular ligament—ulnar side 5th metacarpus. [Ulnar.] 
(15) MIDDLE PALMAR REGION, 3. 

Lumb ica’les : (4); accessories to flexor profun¬ 
dus digitorum — tendon extensor communis digito- 
rum. [Median and Ulnar.] 

Interos’sei dorsa’les : (4); metacarpi —base 1st 
phalanges 1st, 2d, 3d fingers. [Ulnar.] 

Interos’sei palma’res: (3); 2d,4th and 5th meta¬ 
carpi— 1st phalanges of same fingers. [Ulnar.] 

MOVEMENT. 

The Action of Muscles upon the Scapula, Hu¬ 
merus, Forearm, Carpus, Thumb and Fingers. 


Upper Extremity. 


97 


Scapula: forwards by pectoralis minor, serratus 
magnus. Backwards, trapezius, rhemboidei, latissi- 
mus dorsi. Upwards, trapezius, levator scapulae, 
rhomboidei. Downwards, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, 
pectoralis minor. 

Humerus: forwards, deltoid, pectoralis major; as¬ 
sisted sometimes, by biceps, caraco-brachialis. 
Backwards, deltoid, teres major and minor, triceps 
(long head), latissimus dorsi. Inwards, pectoralis 
major, latissimus dorsi. Rotated inwards, subscap- 
ularis, assisted by pectoralis major, lat dorsi. teres 
major. R. outwards, supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus, 
teres minor. 

FOREARM: forwards, biceps, brachialis anticus, 
pronator radii teres; assisted by flex, carpi rad., 
flex, sublimis digitorum, flex, carpi, ulnaris, supi¬ 
nator longus. Backwards, triceps, anconeus. Ro¬ 
tated inwards, pronator radii teres, flex, carpi radi- 
alis, palmaris longus, flexor sublimis dig., pronator 
quadratus. R. outwards, biceps, supinator brevis, 
extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 

Carpus: forwards, flex, carpi radialis, palmaris 
longus, flex, sublimis and profundus dig, flex, carpi 
ulnaris, flex, longus pollicis. Backwards, ext. carpi 
rad. long, and brev. ext. secundi internodii pollicis, 
ext. indicis, ext. com. dig., ext. prop, pollicis. Out 
wards, flex, carpi rad., ext. carp. rad. long, and 
brevior, ext. ossis metacarpi pol., ext. primi inter¬ 
nodii pol. Inwards, flex, sublim. and profund. 


98 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


digitorum, Ilex, and ext. carpi ulnaris, ext. com. dig., 
ext. min. digiti. 

Thumb: inwards and forwards, opponens, flex, 
brevis and flex. long, pollicis. Outwards and back¬ 
wards, ext. ossis metacarpi, ext. primi and secundi 
internodiijxfllicis. Upwards and away from fingers, 
abductor, flex. brev. pollicis. Backwards and to¬ 
wards fingers, adductor, ext. primi and secundi in- 
ternodii pollicis. 

Fingers : flexed, flex, sublimis and profundus dig., 
lumbricales, flex, and abductor minimi digiti. Back¬ 
wards, ext. communis, ext. minimi digiti and indicis. 
Outwards, interossei, abductor indicis and minimi 
digiti. Inwards, interossei, abductor minimi digiti. 

II. The Nerves. — There are two great systems — 
the Oerebro-Spinal and the Sympathetic. 

I. The Cerebro-Spinal consists of the brain and 
12 pairs of cranial nerves, and of the spinal cord 
and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. 

II. The Sympathetic consists of a double chain 
of ganglia on each side of the spinal column from 
the base of the brain to the coccyx and also numer¬ 
ous ganglia in other parts of the system. 

These two great systems by means of their cen¬ 
tres, gangliae, commissures, and infinite divisions 
and subdivisions associate the different parts of the 
body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one 
organ may excite the activity of another, producing 
co-ordination, co-operation, and rhythm of the en- 


Upper Extremity. 


99 


tire human structure; the force for all motion and 
sensation. 

The Names of Nerves have been derived from 
their situation, direction, uses, shape, and number 
of divisions. 

Motor Nerves transmit impulses out from the 
centre to the periphery, the force travelling at the 
rate of 120 to 150 feet per second. 

Sensory Nerves transmit impressions in from the 
peryphery to the center, the force travelling at the 
rate of 190 to 200 feet per second. 

Automatic or Reflex Action —Muscular action 
without the intervention of consciousness or voli¬ 
tional power, e. g. eyelids wink before a blow. Writ¬ 
ing becomes automatic when the sentence is con¬ 
ceived, the hand committing it to paper without 
thought of the intermediate muscular acts. 

MOTOR APPARATUS. 

Vaso-motor Nerves regulate the caliber of the 
blood vessels. 

Trophic Nerves regulate the influence of secre¬ 
tion, and nutritional changes. 

Efferent Nerves pass out from the centers. 

Afferent Nerves pass in to the centers. 

Nervous Stimuli — mechanical, electrical, thermal, 
and chemical. 

Function or Uses. To govern all muscular move¬ 
ment and all processes of organic life, whether auto- 


100 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


matic or volitional. It is the mainspring of each 
organ, the presiding genius of each function, the 
basis and substance of all life. In learning how to 
order the body aright, and how to have it fulfil our 
orders we at the same time get mental and moral 
stamina. It is when seeking to develop the whole¬ 
ness of our being that we get the benefits of educa¬ 
tion. It is this well-fed, well-slept, well-trained, 
well-exercised nervous system, more than anything 
else thai has to do with our whole well-being. This 
means all that can be meant for us in this world, 
and includes much that is hopeful for us in the next. 
It is of first importance in penmanship as in every¬ 
thing else. Be too proud to abuse it, too proud to 
be swayed by any opinions but those of the worthy 
and of the good. 

III. BONES. 

The Scapula, — a triangular shaped bone situated 
on the upper and back part of the thorax, extending 
from the second to the seventh rib, and articulates 
with the cla?icle and humerus. 

The Arm or Humerus, is the longest, largest bone 
of the upper extremity and articulates with the 
glenoid cavity of the scapula and with the ulna and 
radius. 

The fore-arm, is composed of two bones, viz., the 
ulna and radius. The ulna is at the inner side and 
parallel with the radius and is the longer and 
larger of the two. Its upper extremity, thick and 


Bones. 


101 


strong, forms a large part of the articulation of 
the elbow joint; the lower extremity is very small 
and excluded from the wrist-joint by the inter¬ 
position of an inter-articular fibro-cartilage. 

The radius is on the outer side of the fore-arm, and 
parallel with the ulna, the upper end is small and 
forms only a small part of the elbow-joint; its 
lower end is large and forms the chief part of the 
wrist. It articulates with the humerus, ulna, sca¬ 
phoid and semilunar. 

The Hand, is sub-divided into three segments,— 
the (1) carpus or wrist, (2) metacarpus or palm, 
and (3) phalanges or fingers. 

The Carpus, — consists of eight bones arranged in 
two rows. Beginning at the radial side, upper 
row, are the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and 
pisiform. Beginning on the same side and named 
in the same order are the trapezium, trapezoid, os- 
magnum and unciform. 

The Metacarpus,— or palm.— They are long cylin¬ 
drical bones forming the palm of the hand, and are 
five in number. 

The Phalanges, — are the bones of the fingers. 
They are fourteen in number, three for each finger 
and two for the thumb. 

The Function, or uses of the bone,—to serve for 
the attachment of muscles — to keep the organism 
from sinking by its own weight — they are the 
framework. 


102 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Forethought and Care of the Motor Apparatus. 

The prime necessity for its highest welfare is to pre¬ 
serve the general health of the body. Secure good 
wholesome nutritious diet. Let work and rest alter¬ 
nate in close relationship. The welfare of the nerv¬ 
ous system is the radical aim of all hygienic care. 
There is no wear and tear like that of a disturbed 
nervous organization. Discipline the will power; 
exercise self-control. Avoid ill-temper, bad habits 
and discouragement. Avoid over-work and over¬ 
strain by rest, recreation and amusement. Sleep is 
the great panacea for tired nerves. Other invigor- 
ations may be sought in exercise, change of air and 
scene, and sometimes by the use of special medic¬ 
inal tonics. 

Avoid worry by courage, truthfulness, patience, 
cheerfulness, unselfishness and kindness in the exe¬ 
cution of all social, commercial and business trans¬ 
actions. It is a noble tact, a tactus eruditus to be 
able to discern worry due to overwork or too much 
study. 

tW* Avoid the use of alcohol, opium, and other nar¬ 
cotics. Give special attention to diseases of the 
bones particularly fractures, and sprained ligaments. 
Rest is absolutely essential. Felons or periosteal 
abscesses originate beneath the periosteum and may 
be cured by making an incision through the perios¬ 
teum and allowing the pus to escape. Give all the 
muscles their share of exercise according to the age 


Writer’s Cramp. 


103 


and health — using them and resting them, alter¬ 
nately, frequently and regularly. 

Not all begin with the same capital of health , or 
even acquire it, but they can, at least, learn what 
their capital is, and its ability of preservation or in¬ 
crease, and live accordingly. 

writer’s cramp. 

Note : If this subject seems to be too abstruse it may be 
deferred until the book is reviewed. 

Definition : A certain train of nervous symptoms 
such as spasm, paralysis, pain, tremor, vaso-motor 
disturbances, etc., either alone or in complicated 
combinations which follow certain muscular acts 
and often accompanied by a marked condition of 
general nervousness. They occur as a result of a 
constant muscular strain combined with more or 
less delicate movements of co-ordination continued 
for long periods at a time. 

History: Some of these neuroses have been 
recognized for years. This is particularly true of 
writer’s cramp, the earliest notice of which we are 
able to discover was made in a small work by 
Ramazini printed in 1746. Most of the articles 
upon this subject have been written during the last 
fifteen or twenty years. 

Etiology: Many of our every-day actions, which 
we perform almost automatically, are the result of 
months and even years of practice- this is well 
exemplified in the act of writing. At first each 


104 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

letter is made by a separate and deliberate act,of 
volition, and considerable thought has to be ex¬ 
pended upon its formation; but little by little the 
preponderance of the volitional element decreases, 
until at last we write with but little consciousness 
of each separate movement, and the act becomes 
almost an automatic one, the sentence being con¬ 
ceived and the hand committing it to paper with 
but little thought of the intermediate muscular acts. 
When, however, any one of the various muscles 
whose integrity is necessary for the automatic per¬ 
formance of any act becomes affected, let the lesion 
be in the muscle itself or anywhere in the nerve- 
substance between it and its center, or in that 
centre itself in such a way as to hinder its free 
response to the nervous stimulus, then the will has 
to be especially directed to the act in order to 
counteract the effect of the disability, and some 
other muscle or group of muscles must be sub¬ 
stituted in the place of the one incapacitated. 
That which was previously performed easily and 
without fatigue now becomes difficult and exhaust¬ 
ing. 

The writer may probably notice at times that he 
is exerting a greater amount of muscular force in 
pen-prehension than usual, and may even find that 
he is producing a disagreeable feeling in the pha¬ 
langes by the pressure he is using; he will also 
probably be aware of a burning sensation between 
the shoulder-blades. These symptoms are in all 


Writer’s Cramp. 


105 


probability dependent upon, or at least coincident 
with a hyperasmia ot the nerves and spinal cord, 
and it persisted in for a long time without proper 
intervals of rest must' sooner or later interfere with 
the healthy condition of the spinal cord, as well as 
of the nerves and muscles of the hand and arm. 

The manner of writing and of holding the pen is 
of considerable influence in the causation of this 
trouble. When the pen-holder is allowed to drop 
below the head of the first metacarpal bone the 
movements of the fingers are restricted ; the middle 
and forefinger upon one side of the holder and the 
thumb on the other act upon the principle of the 
toggle-joint and so producing the “ toggle-joint ” 
movement as the pen holder is drawn backward to 
make a stroke binding the distal phalanges tightly 
against the holder, and so causing fatigue and awk¬ 
wardness. If the holder is made to cross the prox¬ 
imal extremity of the first phalanx of the forefinger 
the “toggle-joint” movement is destroyed. 

Writing with a pencil is not so apt to bring on 
fatigue and nervous trouble as pen writing, since 
with the former, no particular angle is to be main¬ 
tained between the point and the paper, and as the 
pencil may be rotated at pleasure, there is therefore 
less effort at poising. 

The invention of the Morse telegraph in 1844 has 
proved a fertile source of writer's cramp. Words 
are often received and written down at the rate of 
thirty, forty or even more, words per minute. Thirty 


106 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


words per minute would require on an average about 
600 separate contractions per minute or 36,000 con¬ 
tractions per hour. 

The grasp of the average man, which includes all 
the flexor muscles of the fingers and thumb, equals 
125 pounds, while the powers of the flexors of the 
wrist, exclusive of the fingers, equals 40 pounds. In 
marked contradistinction to this the extensors of the 
wrist register 35 pounds, and the extensors of the 
fingers only 7. Total power, then, of all the flexors 
is 165, and that of the extensors 42 pounds, nearly 
four times less (3.92). 

The predisposing causes of writer’s cramp are 
hereditary influence and nervous temperament, the 
use of alcohol, tobacco and cigarettes, age, wasting 
diseases, traumatism, etc. 

The symptoms may be classed under five heads, 
— viz: 1. Cramp or spasm. 2. Paresis or par¬ 
alysis. 3. Tremor. 4. Pain or abnormal sensa¬ 
tion. 5. Vaso motor and trophic disturbances. 

These may, and generally do, exist in various 
combinations. 

I. Cramp or Spasm. —This is one of the most 
frequent symptoms and attracts the most attention. 
The contraction may affect either the extensors or 
the flexors; if the extensors, the pen can with 
difficulty be kept upon the paper and the stroke 
movement is interfered with; if the spasm is of the 
flexors it most commonly affects the forefinger and 
thumb; the pen is then forced downward and upon 


Writer’s Cramp. 


107 

making the upward movement catches in the paper ; 
or by flexion and adduction of the thumb the pen¬ 
holder may be twisted from the grasp with force 
sufficient to throw it to some distance. 

Lock-spasm is when the fingers or hand become 
locked in a strong contraction. 

The writer so affected soon changes the manner of 
holding the penholder or pencil. 

II. Paresis or Paralysis.— When this obtains an 
intense feeling of fatigue appears, writing becomes 
very difficult or impossible from an inability of the 
muscles to obey the will. There may be a sense of 
utter weakness and powerlessness, and the pen¬ 
holder or pencil is held in a feeble manner, and 
sometimes falls from the grasp. 

Ill* Tremor. —In some cases trembling or un¬ 
steadiness may be sufficient to cause unsteadiness in 
work, prolonged work and overfatigue being most 
apt to produce it. It is one of the premonitory 
symptoms of professional muscular atrophy. 

IV. Pain or Abnormal Sensation.— The sense of 
tire may be slight or it may be of an intense aching 
character, almost unendurable. Tension and pain 
in the rigid muscles; pain over the various nerve 
trunks and their branches solicited on pressure or 
spontaneous, tinkling, itching, or a sense of numb¬ 
ness. Burning-or stingihg pain under the nail. The 
arm may feel “ lame ” and at the same time there 
may be a painful sensation or sense of heat in the 


108 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


shoulders, or cervical or upper dorsal spine, or there 
may be a soreness and sense of tightness as of a band 
around the wrist, or a tense feeling as if the skin 
would burst whrni the hand was closed. A curious 
form of pain as of a bar thrust diagonally through 
the hand has been complained of. 

V. Vaso-Motor and Trophic Disturbances.— 

When these disturbances are present besides fatigue 
or cramp or some evidence of nerve-lesion, the veins 
on the back of the hand and fingers will be seen to 
slowly enlarge and perhaps extend over the whole 
arm, the parts becoming more or less turgid with 
blood, accompanied by a sensation of throbbing and 
an increased temperature. A rare nutritional symp¬ 
tom is the brittleness of the nails which crack off 
like shell; glossy appearance of the skin; hyperses- 
thesia of the distal phalanges of the fingers, etc. 

IT MAY BE WELL TO KNOW 

that writer’s cramp, scrivener’s cramp, scribe palsy, 
pen palsy, and stammering of the fingers, all mean 
the same. 

A similar condition of the nerves and muscles con¬ 
cerned is seen in shoemaker’s cramp, musician’s 
cramp, milking cramp, cigar maker’s cramp, coach¬ 
man’s cramp, dancer’s cramp, glass blower’s cramp, 
pianist’s cramp, compositor’s cramp, and sempstress’ 
cramp. 


Exercises—Topic Method. 


10£ 


EXERCISES-TOPIC METHOD. 

1. Write six lines on ^Movement Drill.” 

2. Write six lines on “ The Shoulder Joint.” 

3. Write fifteen lines on “ The Elbow Joint.” 

4. Write five lines on “The Wrist Joint.” 

5. Write six lines on “ The Use of Muscles.” 

6. Write ten lines' on “ The Biceps and Triceps.”- 

7. Write ten lines on “ The Action of Muscles of 
the Humerus.” 

8. Write five lines on “Automatism or Reflex 
Action.” 

9. Write fifteen lines on the “ Use 3 and Care of 
the Nervous System.” 

10. Write ten lines on “The Bones of the Fore- 
arm.” 

11. Write twenty lines on “ The Care of the Motor 
Apparatus.” 

12. Write forty lines on “ The Etiology of Writer’s 
Cramp.” 

13. Write one page discussing “The Symptoms, 
of Writer’s Cramp.” 


110 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is movement? 

2. Give the three methods of action in move¬ 
ment. 

3. Give the two general classes of movement. 

4. Give the primary classification of movement. 

5. What is the whole-arm movement? 

6. What is prehension ? 

7. What is poising? 

8. How is pen-prehension and poising accom¬ 

plished in the whole-arm movement ? 

9. What is called the “moveable fulcrum” of the 
fore-arm ? 

10. How is the poising of the arm and hand ac¬ 
complished ? 

11. How is the act of moving the pen mainly per¬ 
formed ? 

12. Name some advantages of the whole-arm 
movement. 

13. How show that whole-arm is the primary move¬ 
ment ? 

14. How is finger movement produced ? 

15. How is the act of prehension accomplished in 
the finger movement?. The act of moving the pen? 
Of poising? 

16. Of what motions are the arm and hand rests 
capable of in finger movement ? 

17. Give uses of the finger movement. 


Review Questions. 


Ill 


18. Give the secondary classification of movement. 

19. What are combined movements? 

20. Which is the most important of all the com¬ 
bined movements? 

21. Describe fully the arm rest. 

22. Describe fully the Hand rest. 

23. Should supinationjjbe allowed? ; 

24. Should any flesh touch the paper ? No. 

25. What may be considered the foundation of 
penmanship ? 

26. What is muscular movement? 

27. What is projected movement? 

28. What is progressive movement ? 

29. What rate of speed should be practiced? 

30. Discuss movement drills. 

31. What is the test of movement? 

32. What is flexion ? 

33. What is extension ? 

34. ‘ What is abduction ? 

35. What is adduction ? 

36. What is circumduction ? 

37. What is rotation ? 

38. What is the axis ? 

39. What is the median line of the body ? 

40. Define execution and movement. 

41. What bone composes the arm ? 

42. Describe the shoulder joint. 

43. What movements are permitted by the shoul¬ 
der joint ? 


112 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

44. Where is the fore-arm? What bones in the 
fore-arm ? 

45. What kind of joint is the shoulder? 

46. What kind of joint is the elbow joint? 

47. What movements are peculiar to the elbow 
joint? 

48. Explain the movement of rotation on the 
ulna. 

49. If the radius rotates around the head of the 
ulna forwards what does it produce? It backwavds ? 

50. Name the movements permitted by the wrist 
joint. 

51. What tendons cover the wrist joint? How? 

52. What movements does the articulations of the 
carpal bones permit? 

58. Give the movements permitted by the carpo¬ 
metacarpal articulations. 

54. Give the movements permitted by the meta- 
carpo phalangeal articulations. 

55. What movements have the phalangeal joints ? 

56. Give the motor apparatus. 

57. How are the muscles classified with respect to 
the will? 

58. Distinguish between voluntary and involun¬ 
tary muscular actions? 

59. Distinguish between flexors and extensors. 

60. From what have the names of muscles been 
derived ? 

61. Describe the muscle stimulus. 

62. What is the origin of a muscle? 


Review Questions. 


113 


68. What is the insertion of a muscle ? 

64. What is the function or use of muscles ? 

65. Name the muscles of the eye. 

66. Give the eight movements of the eye. 

67. Where is the center of motion in the eye ? 

68. What is the muscle plane ? 

69. What is the base line (eye) ? 

70. What is the axis of turning? 

(71-102). Give the origin and insertion of the mus¬ 
cles of the upper extremity and nervous supply. 

103. Give the action of the muscles on the hu¬ 
merus. 

104. Give the action of the muscles on the fore¬ 
arm. 

105. Give the action of the muscles on the carpus. 

106. Give the action of the muscles on the thumb. 

107. Give the action of the muscles on the fingers. 

108. Name the two great systems of nerves. 

109. Of what does the cerebro spinal system con¬ 
sist ? 

110. Of what does the sympathetic system con¬ 
sist ? 

111. What is the office of these two great systems 
combined ? 

112. Whence come the names of nerves ? 

113. What are motor nerves? Velocity? 

114. What are sensory nerves? Velocity? 

115. What is automatism or reflex action? 

116. When has writing become automatic? 

117. What is the function of vaso-motor nerves ? 


114 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


118. What is the function of tropic nerves? 

119. What are efferent nerves ? 

120. What are afferent nerves? 

121. Name the nervous stimuli. 

122. Discuss fully the functions or uses of the 
nervous system. 

128. Describe and locate the scapula. 

124. Describe and give the articulations of the 
humerus. 

125. Describe the fore-arm. 

126. Give the articulations of the bones of the 
fore-arm. 

127. Which fore-arm bone is excluded from the 
wrist joint? How? 

128. On which sides of the fore arm are the ulna 
and radius respectively? 

129. Give the subdivisions of the hand. 

130. Name the carpal bones in order beginning at 
the radial side, upper row. How many? 

131. How many metacarpal or palm bones ? 

132. What are the phalanges? How many? Where? 

133. Give the function or uses of bones. 

134. Discuss fully the forethought and care neces¬ 
sary to first class motility. 

135. What is the radical aim of all hygienic care? 

186. What is meant by u Capital of Health ? ” 

137. What is writer’s cramp? 

138. Give etiology or cause of writer’s cramp ? 

139. What can you say of the manner of writing 
and holding the pen as a cause of this trouble ? 


Review Questions. 115 

140. Name some predisposing causes of writer’s 
cramp. 

141. Classify the symptoms of writer’s cramp. 
(142 148.) Discuss each class fully. 

149. How guard against writer’s cramp? 

150. Why is pencil-writing less apt to produce 
writer’s cramp than pen-writing ? 

151. Give synonyms of “ writers’s cramp.” 

For u movement drills,” “practice,” “drawing,” 

etc., etc., see chapter on “ General Practice.” 


116 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER V. 


EXECUTION. 

1. The Essentials of Execution. 

2. Drawing and Writing. 

3. Sight and Touch. 

4. Music. 

r 1. Standard. 

5. Slant.. \ 2. Elevation. 

( 3. Angle of Legibility. 

6. Change of Style. 

7. Speed. 

8. Writing Field. 

9. Writing Scale. { £ Consiructi™. 

10. Definitions. 

{ 1. Lower-case. 

2. Capitals. 

3. Numerals. 

12. Manner of Execution. { \ $ Lowercase. 

f 1. Advantages. 

2. Combining J 1. Simple. 

13. The Word Method ... ] Movements. \2. Compound. 

j 3. Rules for Combination. 

L 4. Rules for Slanting. 

14. Execution of Figures. 

15. Execution of Vertical Letters. 

16. Exercises. 





V 


Execution. 117 


CHAPTER V. 


EXECUTION. 


THE ESSENTIALS OF EXECUTION. 

1. Normal Refraction of the Eye. (l) u 55per 
cent to 00 per cent of school children have imperfect 
eyesight.” 

2. Proper Position of (1) eye, (2) body, (3) arms, 
(4) hands, (5) feet, etc. 

3. Good Pens, penholders and paper. 

(1.) The pen should be even on the point. (2.) 
The holder should be in proportion to the size of the 
hand. (3.) The paper should be smooth and of ex¬ 
cellent quality. 

4. Proper Pen-Prehension and Poising. 

(1.) Trained muscles. (2.) Proper action to se¬ 
cure easy balance. 

5. Thorough Knowledge of Kesemblances and 
Differences: (1.) Points of agreement. (2.) Points 
of difference ascertained by proper study of analysis, 
synthesis, analogy, etc. 

6. Whole Arm Movement. (1.) All parts under¬ 
stood, as to form. (2.) Correctly made. (3.) Cor¬ 
rectly related when in combination. 




118 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


7. A Good Blackboard of a blue black tint. 

8. Ink. (1.) The ink should be black. (2.) The 
ink should flow readily. 

9. Proper Knowledge of alignment, slant, spac¬ 
ing, shading, etc. 

Drawing and Writing are closely related so that a 
knowledge of one helps to a knowledge of the 
other. The primary principles are identical. 

Sight and Touch are the senses chiefly used in 
gaining correct ideas of penmanship. Of the two 
sight is greater in importance, revealing form, size, 
situation and color. Nevertheless all of the five 
senses are essential to its completeness. 

Music. —The relations of music to penmanship are 
intimate. Slant corresponds to pitch, speed to time, 
size to volume, style to expression, shade to accent 
and quality to tone. 

Practice or Production is reducing conceptions of 
the mind to visible language either by parts, in 
combination, or as a whole. 

The Degree of Slant. —As there are 90 degrees in 
a Quadrant, the writing may be made to slant 90 
degrees forward and 90 degrees backward or by 
varying the lines of slant between 90 degrees for¬ 
ward and 90 degrees backward (180 degrees), there 
may be made many different angles, placed by 
some at 700. 

The Degree of Standard Slant, is 37 degrees from 
the perpendicular along tbe Base Line, and 30 de- 


Execution. 


119 


grees elevation for the curves above it, so that the 
angle of legibility is the difference between them 
which amounts to 23 degrees. 

The Degree of Slant in Vertical Penmanship is 0, 
or nothing. 

To Change the Style to any degree from the Stand¬ 
ard—move the elbow away from the left side of the 
page without moving the hand rest, and the change 
from slant to vertical or any desired slant may be 
easily accomplished. 

Alignment is placing letters, figures, words or 
other objects in line with each other, and therefore 
of great importance in using unruled paper. 

Speed .—In writing 30 words per minute—ordinary 
hand—the pen will pass through the space of one 
rod, and in five and one-third hours through the 
space of one mile. To execute, each letter requires 
from three to seven strokes of the pen and at the 
rate of thirty words per minute, 28,000 curves may 
be executed in one hour. The different changes that 
can be made with the twenty-six letters are over 
one decillion in number! A number of which the 
mind can form no adequate conception. 

The Writing Field. T his is the sweep or forearm 
semi-circle. The writing field for adults averages 
Tj- bv 10 inches. The writing field for children 
averages 1 by 8 inches. 

Variety of Style. Variety of style results from 
changes from the standard. Running, Vertical and 


120 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Backwards are varieties of Slant. Round and An¬ 
gular hands are varieties of Form. Large and small 
hands are varieties in Size. Small writing can be 
written faster than large. 

Writing Scale. Six lines and five enclosed spaces 
complete the writing scale for lengths , and if ver¬ 
tical lines be drawn parallel to the perpendicular so 
as to divide the spaces into rectangles three-fourths 
as wide as high (3 x 4), the scale will be complete 
for both length and width. The diagonals of the 
rectangles thus formed (3 x 4), will be a slant of 37 
degrees forward from the perpendicular for strokes, 
30 degrees for curves , and 20 degrees for combining. 

Uses of the Scale. —To regulate length, width, 
slant and spacing. 

The Size of Writing depends upon the given di¬ 
mensions between the lines of the scale when the 
relation of three to four is maintained. Large,” 
“ medium,” or u small ” hand may be thus con¬ 
structed. 

Guide Lines. While many excellent teachers favor 
guide lines it is to be remembered that each per¬ 
son’s individuality shows forth in his own handwrit¬ 
ing. This individuality should not be repressed by 
any line save the line of arrangement as ordinarily 
ruled on paper when it is manufactured; and in¬ 
deed this may well be dispensed with after a careful 
study of position and alignment. 


Manner of Execution. 


121 


MANNER OF EXECUTION. 

Analogy is the similarity or relation of elements 
or parts. 

Analogous Letters have parts in common. 

Analogue is the part common to a group of 
letters. 

Polygram is a figure consisting of many strokes 
or lines. 

The Identity of a letter is preserved by its ana¬ 
logue or type. 

The Particulars of a letter are the parts peculiar 
to itself. 

The Use of Polygrams is to show the resemblance 
of letters by means of their analogues and particu¬ 
lars. By their use the lower-case and capitals may 
each be woven into three classes and the numerals 
into four classes, as follows : 


LOWER CASE LETTERS. 


Class I. The number of letters is nine. 
The Analogue is. 



The polygrams are (1) i u w, (2) i e c, (3) i r s, 
(4) i t p. 

Class II. The number of letters is eight. ^ 
The Analogue is.. 




122 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


The polygrams are (1) r, y, x, (2) n, m, (3) o, a, d. 

Class III. The number of letters is eleven. 

The Analogue is.. 

The polygrams are (1) 1, b, (2) h, k, (3) z, y, j, 
(4) f and long s. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Class I. The number of letters is fif¬ 
teen. 

The Analogue is . 

The polygrams are (1) T, F, (2) A, N, M, (3) H, 
K, (4) 8, L, G, (5) P, B, R, (6) I, J. 

Class II. The number of letters is four. 

The Analogue is. 

The polygrams are (1) O, E, C and D. 

Class III. The number of letters is nine. 

The Analogue is . 

The polygrams are (1) M, N, (2) Z, X, Q, 

W, (3) Y, U, Y. 

NUMERALS. 

Class I. 1 and 4. 

Class II. 2, 3 and 5. 

Class III. 6, 8 and $. 

Class IV. 7, 9 and 0 

Remark: In executing polygrams, form on and about 
the Analogue in very light strokes or dotted lines the let¬ 
ters belonging to each class. 

CALISTHENICS. 

* Duly consider the whole organism. Give the eye special 
attention, avoid myopia by looking at far away object, cor- 










Execution. 


123 


rect all errors of refraction by proper glasses (see Chap. II) 
Practice direct exercise of the will power on the muscles in 
general. Practice chest expansion and throwing back the 
shoulders. Rotate the arms from the shoulder joint, secur¬ 
ing all the movements as abduction, adduction, rotation, 
circumduction, pronation, supination, wave motions in the 
air. Flexing and extending the fingers and arms rapidly 
and rythmically. Marching or writing to music or the 
tick of the metronome. Introduce speed contests. Be in¬ 
ventive. Observe proper hygienic forethought and care as. 
regards food, air, light and exercise. Wake up the mind 
and the muscles and nerves, apply movement to form and 
help to command the body. Keep in mind the conditions 
which most effect good work, viz : temperature, stimuli, 
exercise, blood supply and connection with the higher nerve 
centers. Nerve force is the normal stimulus. 

THE EXECUTION OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Execution is the formation of elements and their 
combinations to represent in visible language letters,, 
figures, signs, etc. 

Movements. — Whole Arm and Finger Movements. 
Muscular Action. —In the execution of Capitals, 
pen prehension , and poising , are accomplished by 
the muscles of the forearm and hand, and occasion¬ 
ally a slight finger movement for the long strokes is. 
allowable. The act of moving the pen is mainly per¬ 
formed by the muscles whose origin is about the- 
arm, shoulder, and scapula. 


124 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 




r 


/$ ^ yds 


yy 


/ T 


Ji 




sms sris rtr 



'tis ss 


As 


Als d yys sir rsr ss 


T T 


o4 jO (o cf~d o/l ' cH 

^dud cdoof 0 (? Q (O' 

d cT (k % Oftfo 


Execution. 


125 


Execute the capital stem shading on the stem 
Or oval. In a point at the top join the left 
curve and carry it to the base. Finish with the 
crossing mark. 

Eorm the letter P and continuing tie an oval 
[(/) extending a little below the base. Shade as 
in P. 


capita 

/O 


Make a loop two spaces long, shade crossing 
\D the first right curve,-and finish with a small 
capital 0 (modified). 

Begin spaces high, make the stem and 
looping at the base finish with a large oval 
touching the base and extending three spaces high, 
shading on the finishing curve. 

JP Execute a left curve (shade on the first 
vL/ curves of each part) continue over or through 
this, tie, and finish with a (modified) capital O. 

Execute a capital fold, cross the stem, 
O' finish with a straight mark, raise the pen, 
place the cap, (see T) shade on the stem Oval. 

Form a loop, turn, right curve, point and 
finish with the stem oval shading towards 
the base. 






Execute right curve joining in a point at 
the top of stem oval. Lift the pen, begin 
high (3 spaces) and make the long left curve and 
finish with the crossing mark. The shade is on the 
stem oval. 


126 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


n Join the capital fold and stem oval, contin- 
Cx uous curve, shading on the stem oval. 

/ Join the capital fold and loop, shade on the 
loop and extend it two spaces below the base 
line. 

j/ Execute the first portion of H, lift the pen, 
J Qyly begin three spaces high and make the two 
compound curves tying them to the stem oval at 
right angles. Shade as in H, on the stem oval. 

0 Execute S, changing the last left curve into 
a horizontal compound curve forming a hori 
zontal loop. Shade on the lower part of the first 
compound curve. 

ExecuteN, carrying its last left curve three 
spaces high and finishing with a left curve. 
The shade is placed on the stem oval. 

Make A, omitting the crossing mark. Join 
a left curve by a very narrow turn on the 
base line. The shade is on the stem oval. 

Execute an oval, shading on the first curve, 
the height being one space more than the 
width and the second and third curves being equal 
the distance between them being usually two-fifths 
space. 

Execute the compound curve (stem), con¬ 
tinue with a broad turn on the base to cross¬ 
ing the stem at the top and recrossing it at its middle. 
The last portion of the compound curve receives 
the shade. 


cf 


<D 


& 



Execution. 


127 


/O Execute a capital fold and, changing the 
direction at every point, a horizontal com¬ 
pound curve forming a horizontal loop. The shade 
is on the fold. 


(2 


Tie a compound curve extending to the 
base to P, shading on the last part of the 
compound curve. 


Join a modified capital stem three spaces 
high to a right curve by a turn—shading on 
the stem oval. 

Execute the capital stem, lift the pen and 
place the cap one-half of a space above and 
to the left of it continuing to the right in a hori¬ 
zontal compound curve two and a half spaces long. 

/9 Execute a capital fold and turning at the 
^C/i/ base a right curve to which join in a point 
the extended hook. Shade on the folds. 

Execute a capital fold joining by a turn on the 
base a compound curve. Shade on the fold. 


O' 


Execute the capital fold, point, ascend in a 
right curve, point, descend in a left curve to 
the base, turn very short and ascend in a left curve. 
Shade on the fold. 


as 


Execute a capital fold, raise the pen, form 
a left curve or an inverted fold touching the 
first fold in the center of the right curve. Shade on 
the first fold. 



Science and Art of Penmanship. 

Join to the capital fold by a turn and right 
curve, the extended inverted loop. Shade 
on the fold. 

Tie to the capital fold by a little larger loop 
than ordinary in other situations, the in¬ 
verted modified loop. Shade on the fold. 


THE EXECUTION OF THE SMALL LETTERS OR LOWER-CASE. 


Movements: —Whole-arm and finger movements. 
All of the small letters are executed in full without 
raising the pen except i j t and x. 
sft/ Execute a modified pointed oval to which 
join the hook. 



Form the loop and finish as in w. 


Execute a right curve two-thirds space long, 
make a very short straight line downward, 
and turning over this,finish with the hook (modified). 

/ The same as a, continuing one space above 
the head line and finishing with the ex¬ 
tended hook. 

^ Make a right curve and turning short at the 
top finish with the hook (modified). 


Execute the loop and descending form the 
fold. 


Join the inverted loop to the modified 
pointed oval. 


Execution. 


129 



Join the double hook to the loop. 


4/ Execute a right curve joining thereto in a 
point the hook. Raise the pen and place 
the dot one space above. 



Join the inverted loop to a right curve. Raise 
the pen and place the dot one space above. 



Make the loop; ascend to a little above 
where the line crosses in forming the loop, 
turn, tie, and finish with a hook (modified). 

Join a right curve by a turn to the loop. 


Execute two inverted hooks, and join 
thereto the double hook. 

Execute one inverted hook, and join thereto 
the double hook. 


str 


Make the oval and finish with horizontal 
right curve. 


Join to a right curve one and one-half 
spaces high, the folded stem, reverse oval 
and right curve. 


7 


Join the folded stem to the modified pointed 
oval. 


130 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Execute a right curve to one and one-fourth 
st/ spaces high, dot, make short , compound 
curve down and to the right finishing with 
the hook. 

Execute a diminutive stem oval, dot on the 
first right curve one-fourth space above the 
base, and retrace from the dot with a right curve. 

jfc Execute a right curve, finishing with the 
extended hook. Cross mark. 

Execute double ii without any dots.' Or join 
two hooks to a right curve. 

Execute the double hook contracting the 
opening at the top to two-thirds of a space 
so as to finish as in w. 

yyy Execute a right curve and two hooks con¬ 
tracting the second hook two-thirds at the 
top, and finish with a dot and horizontal right curve. 
Execute the double hook. Raise the pen 
and cross the straight line of the double 
hook with the crossing mark on connective slant. 



Join the inverted loop to the double hook. 


Tie the inverted loop to a diminutive capital 


a fold. (Or modified inverted hook.) Or, 
inverse semi angle, shoulder, and modified loop. 

Remark Single letter practice will not teach all there 
is to be known about letters in penmanship. Only when 
practiced in words can they be fully learned and under¬ 
stood. 


Execution. 



131 


»,' • . . : . . . ■ ( v; ; • . r -t h ' K V f - \. 

otf &. Jj) jO dcT^ 

\ . /. y • ' ' f 


^ddJdbof 0 (?Q Qv 
JcT B(? Offlodj^ 




^ /d 






y/rt/ yyy yrr 



2/ 





r r 


132 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

THE NEW METHOD. 

The Word Method also called ‘‘Thought Method” 
and “ Language Method ” consists in executing 
whole words at the outstart or beginning always 
discussing the letters in combination. 

Connecting or Joining Lines are never fully 
learned and understood except when they are 
practiced in words. 

The Combining Movements are simple and com¬ 
pound. The simple combining movement is exe¬ 
cuted in three different directions, either horizontal, 
obliquely upward or obliquely downward. The 
compound combining movement is made in two 
directions, either horizontal or obliquely upward. 

RULES FOR COMBINATION. 

Rule!. Join the finishing curve of each letter to 
the beginning curve of the next without raising the 
pen. 

Rule 2. Letters ending and beginning with sim- 
iliar curves as i, u, n, etc., are joined by the simple 
combining movement. 

Rule 3. Letters ending and beginning with dis¬ 
similar curves as na, em, in, etc., are joined by the 
compound combining movement. 

Rule 4. Letters ending at the top are connected 
to the following letters by the horizontal combining 
movement as wo, vi, ba, etc. 


Execution*. 


133 


Rule 5. A letter which ends at the top is joined 
to e, c and s at right angles to the slant of the letter 
to the middle of the space, asoe, os, ws, etc. 

Rule 6. Twenty degrees from the horizontal is 
the usual slant of the upward combining curves. 
As parts of letters are best shown in letters them¬ 
selves, so the parts of words including turns, points, 
slant, semi-angles etc., are best shown in words 
themselves, and especially the beginning and end¬ 
ing lines of letters related. 

RULES FOR SLANTING. 

Rule 1. The slant must be uniform throughout 
the page. 

Rule 2. All lines must be parallel to all other 
lines of the same kind. 

Rule 3. The downward strokes must slant thirty- 
seven degrees. 

Rule 4. The upward combining curve should 
slant twenty degrees above the horizontal. 

Rule 6. The slant (elevation) of up strokes 
should be thirty degrees above the line of arrange¬ 
ment. 

Rule 6. Loop letters and capitals correspond in 
slant with small letters and should be thirty-seven 
degrees to the right of the perpendicular. 

Remark: Slant is measured on a straight line drawn 
through the extreme points of curves and capitals and 
through the direction of the strokes of small letters. 


134 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


THE EXECUTION OF FIGURES. 


Movements : Whole Arm and Finger movements. 
All of the figures are executed without raising the 
pen except 4 and 6. 

y Execute a straight line on the regular slant shad¬ 
ing at the bottom. 

j g Make a modified Q shading on the second right 
curve. 


g Execute a diminutive reversed E shading on the 
right side of the oval. 

j Execute a right curve with downward stroke 
^ joining thereto in a point a horizontal curve. 
Raise the pen and cross the latter with a slightly 
curved line on the regular slant. Shade at the top 
of the first downward stroke. 

«* 

Execute a line slightly curved to the right one- 
half space long, tie, and finish with an oval. 
Raise the pen, go to the starting point and make a 
horizontal right curve one space long. Shade on 
the right side of the oval. 

^ Make a straight line one space long and finish 
with a dimiputive or modified capital O. 


sy At a point one-half space above the head line 
' make a straight line one-fourth space long join¬ 
ing to it a horizontal compound curve; tie; descend 
in a left curve to the base and finish with a straight 


Execution. 


135 


line three-fourths of a space long below the base 
line, and place the shade below the base. 


^ Execute a compound curve shading on its lower 
portion, and turning, cross the same in a left 
curve at, or a little below, the head line. 


9 


Join a straight line to the oval (modified). 
Shade the oval and also the straight line below 


the base. 

Execute an oval one space high and one-half 


o 


space wide, and shade on the left side. 


VERTICAL WRITING. 


[To save repetition reference is made to the chapter on 
“ Analysis ” and “Synthesis.”] 


The execution is almost identical except the let¬ 
ters do not have any slant. 

We present the following script vertical letters 
because of their simplicity and their near approach 
to print. We have most excellent penmen who 
make no appreciable difference except to execute 
the letters vertically instead of on the regular slant. 
If the accompanying style of vertical hand suits the 
tastes of the teacher and class, directions for their 
execution may be given accordingly. In this style 
the capitals are twice the height of small body let¬ 
ters and the same length as stem and loop letters. 

[Consult Chapter III.] 


136 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CAUTIONS. 

1. Do not, fail to observe a proper position of the 
eye, body, arms, hands and feet. 

2. Do not fail to secure entire ease of the whole 
body. 

3. Have a care to all the essentials of execution- 

4. Remember that conceptions of the mind must 
precede visible execution. Have good ideals. 

5. Avoid all excitement when attempting to 
execute any form. 

6. Do not be governed by guide lines entirely. 
Practice alignment without visible lines. 

7. Do not repress your individuality too much; 
let it show itself. 

8. Never use heavy strokes in executing poly¬ 
grams. 

9. Do not tail to keep in mind the conditions 
effecting good work. 

10. Let work and rest alternate in quick suc¬ 
cession. 

11. Never become discouraged; remember the 
direct exercise of the will power on the muscles. 

exercises. 

1. Write ten lines on the “ Essentials of Exe¬ 
cution. ” 

2. Write five lines on the “ Relations of Music to 
Penmanship. ” 

3. Write ten lines taking for your subject “The 
Writing Scale. ” 



I 


Execution. 137 

4. Classify “Stem,” “Oval,” “Loop” and 
“ Short ” letters. 

5. Write a short sketch on “ Calisthenics.” 

6. Write the manner in which the first six letters 
(1) capitals, (2) lower case should be executed and 
execute the same. 

7. Write a few lines on the “ Word Method. ” 

8. Write four rules for combining. 

9 Write four rules for slanting. 

10. State in writing how you execute “8,” “9” 
and “0” and execute the same. 

11. Discuss briefly in writing the resemblances 
and differences in the manner of execution of the 
letters of any two systems you may choose. 

12. Execute (1) the capitals, (2) the lower case 
in oblique or standard slant. 

13. Execute (1) the capitals, (2) the lower case 
in vertical hand. 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

1. Name nine essentials of execution. 

2. What per cent of pupils have imperfect eye¬ 
sight? 

3. Give proper position of (1) eye, (2) body, 
(3) hands, (4) feet, (5) arms. 

4. What is the most essential feature in (1) the 
pen, (2) holder, (3) paper? 

5. What are the two main requisites in proper 
pen-prehension and poising? 


138 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


6. How is comparison or points of resemblances 
and differences best ascertained ? 

7. What are the two main qualities of good ink? 

8. In what respects are writing and drawing re¬ 
lated ? 

9. What are the chief senses employed in pen¬ 
manship ? 

10. Are all the senses essential to a completeness 
of the subject ? 

11. Give the corresponding relations of music to 
penmanship. 

12. What is production ? 

13. Explain how different degrees of slant may be 
obtained. 

14. What is the degree of standard slant ? 

15. What is the degree of elevation ? 

16. What is the angle of legibility ? 

17. What is the degree of slant in vertical hand ? 

18. How change the style to any degree ? 

19. What is alignment? 

20. How many strokes of the pen is required to 
execute each letter? 

21. Discuss probable rates of speed. 

22. What is the writing field ? 

23. What is the average field for adults? Children? 

24. How does variety of style result ? 

25. Give varieties of (1) slant, (2) form, (3) size. 

26. Which can be written the faster, small or large 
hand ? 

27. How construct a writing scale ? 


Execution. 


139 


28. What slant does the diagonal 8x4 give for (1) 
strokes, (2) curves, (3) combining? 

29. Give four uses of the scale. 

30. What does the size of writing depend on ? 

31. What is analogy ? Analogous letters ? 

32. What is an analogue ? 

33. What is a polygram ? 

34. How is the identity of a letter preserved ? 

35. What are the particulars of a letter? 

36. State the use of polygrams. 

37. How many classes based on the analogues in 
(1) lower case, (2) capitals, (3) figures? 

38. Name (1) the stem, (2) direct oval, (3) inverse 
oval capitals. 

39. Name (1) the loop, (2) semi-extended, (3) 
short, lower case letters. 

40. Give an example of an abbreviated letter. 

41. Define execution. 

42. Discuss the muscular action in the execution 
of capital letters. 

(43-68.) Give manner of executing each capital 
letter. 

69. What movements are used mainly in execu¬ 
tion ? 

70. How many of the small letters are executed 
in full without raising the pen ? Ans. 22. 

71. What four can not be executed without rais¬ 
ing the pen ? 

72. Will single letter practice teach all there is 
to be known about letters in penmanship? Why? 


140 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


73. What is the word method? Give synonyms. 

74. How may connecting lines be fully understood? 

75. Classify combining movements. 

76. Name the ways in which (1) the simple com¬ 
bining movement is executed, (2) the compound 
combining movement. 

77. Give five rules for combining. 

78. What is the usual slant for upward combining 
curves ? 

79. How are the elements or parts of letters and 
words best shown ? 

80. Give rules for slanting. 

81. Name the figures that can not be executed 
without raising the pen. 

82. Give manner of execution of figures and lower¬ 
case letters. 

83. Discuss the execution of vertical letters. 


Spacing and Shading. 


141 


CHAPTER VI. 


SPACING AND SHADING. 


I. 


II. 


1. Definitions. 

2. Object of Spacing. 

3. Measuring Units. 

4. Rules for Spacing. 

5. Automatic Act of Spacing. 

6. The Basis of Spacing. 

7. Spacing Determined. 

8. Spacing in Length. 

1. Definition. 

2. Basis of Shading. 

3. Uses of Shading. 

4. Guide to Shading. 

5. General Rules for Shading. 

6. Cautions. 

7. Exercises. 

8. Review Questions. 


f 1. In Standard Slant. 
\ 2. In Vertical Hand. 

f 1. Of Capitals. 

\ 2. Of Lower Case. 





142 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER VI. 

SPACING AND SHADING. 

I. SPACING. 

A Space is the interval or distance between the 
main lines of letters or characters, and distinguishes 
one from the other. 

Spacing is arranging spaces between letters, 
figures, words, etc. t 

The Spacing of letters in words depends upon the 
slant of the up-strokes. 

The object of spacing is to secure legibility. 

The established rule is — All letters must be one 
space apart. 

The measuring units are the two lower-case letters 
i and u. 

The spaces in height and width are determined 
by the measuring units. 

A space in width is the distance between the 
straight lines of the small letter u. 

A space in height is the height of the small letter 
i without the dot. 

The spacing of letters in words depends upon 
the slant of the up-stroke. The more slant the more 



Spacing and Shading. 


143 


space; the less slant the less space, but width de¬ 
pends upon the main lines between which it is 
measured. 

In conjoined or related letters the following rules 
may be.given: 

1. Letters joined by upright curves are one and 
one-fourth to one and one-half spaces apart. 

2. Letters joined at the top by horizontal simple 
or compound curves are one and one-fourth spaces 
apart. 

3. Letters joined by slanting compound curves 
are one and one-half spaces apart. 

4. Figures should be from one-half to one space 
apart. 

5. The distance between l’s should be one space. 

6. Words should be three spaces apart. 

7. Sentences and paragraphs should be from four 
to six spaces apart. 

The Basis of Spacing is the usage of the best 
authors and penmen. A theory of exact widths for 
single letters is impracticable as it varies owing to 
the style of hand written. Legibility is increased 
when the letters are well separated in a business or 
running hand. 

The Automatic Act of Spacing. At first there is 
a deliberate act of volition and an expenditure of 
considerable thought which gradually decreases 
until but little if any thought of the intermediate 
spaces is given. Little by little the volitional ele- 


144 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


ment ceases and the act goes on without the inter¬ 
vention of consciousness. The articulation or join¬ 
ing of the letters goes on, the hand gliding uncon¬ 
sciously from the form of one letter into the form of 
the next. 

Although the measuring units “ i ” and u u ” are 
regarded as the standard measure, nevertheless the 
rectangle 3x4 determines the standard width in 
standard slant and 4x4 the width in vertical pen¬ 
manship, so that the size of any handwriting may 
be changed by changing the scale. [See Chapter V.] 

Capitals are usually three spaces high, or in 
length. 

Lower-Case are (1) body letters one space, (2) 
semi-extended, two spaces, (3) loop letters three 
spaces, (4) double extension, two spaces above and 
one below, (5) short extension, two spaces in length. 
Spaces in medium hand are usually one-eighth of 
an inch. 

II. SHADING. 

Shading is executing some portions of a stroke 
denser or heavier than other parts. 

The Basis of Shading is the use of it by the best 
penmen. 

The Use of Shade is to please, to adorn, to beau¬ 
tify. However, without it greater rapidity can be 
attained, and manuscripts are more easily corrected. 
Therefore, it may well be dispensed with. 


Spacing and Shading. 145 

Guide to Shading. — Shade as found in observing 
standard capitals and lower case letters. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SHADING. 

1. The density is increased to, and decreased 
from, the center on curved lines, its direction being 
changed at every point. 

2. Two equal shades never come together in the 
same letter. 

3. A letter receives but one shade. 

4. All downward strokes are denser than upward 
strokes. 

5. Single and double hooks are shaded on the 
straight line. 

6. All lower-case letters are shaded above the 
base. 

7. The capitals are shaded on downward strokes 
in ovals, stem ovals, folds and stems. 

8. Each figure receives but one shade. 

9. Shade light rather than heavy. 

10. Shade even as one shade compared to another 
on a page. 

Remark : Chapter V. — Manner of Execution tells where 
to shade each letter. 

SHADDSTGr. 
t, CAUTIONS. 

1. Avoid having the spaces between the letters 
in a word unequal. 

2. When legibility is sought place words more 
than three spaces apart rather than less. 


146 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


3. Avoid excessive lengths in height of the 
capital letters; let them be less than three spaces 
rather than more. 

4. Avoid long and short semi-extended letters in 
the same hand; let them be of the same height. 

5. Avoid excessive lengths of the double exten¬ 
sion letters. 

6. Avoid varying the length of body letters in 
the same hand. 

7. Avoid varying the width of letters in the 
same hand. 

8. Make the loop letters less than three spaces 
rather than more. 

9. Do not forget that the object of spacing is to 
secure legibility. 

SPACING. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write one thousand one hundred and eleven, 
properly spacing the l’s. 

2. Write one million in figures so that the spaces 
between the 0’s shall be equal. 

3. Write a sentence of at least seven words, the 
spaces between which shall be equal. 

4. Write four short sentences beginning each 
with a capital and placing after each a period with 
a view to having spaces between sentences equal. 

5. Write a short letter of introduction, the main 
object of which shall be to illustrate proper spacing. 
[Chapter X.] 


Spacing and Shading. 


147 


6. Write the superscripton on an envelope prop¬ 
erly spacing in all directions. [Chapter X.] 

7. Write seven lines on “The Automatic Act of 
Spacing,” with a view to being graded on proper 
spaces between letters, words and sentences. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a space? Its office? 

2. What is spacing? 

3. What does the spacing in words depend upon ? 

4. What is the object of spacing? 

5. What is the established rule ? 

6. What letters are arbitrarily chosen as the 
u measuring units ? ” 

7. How are height and width determined ? 

8. What is a space in width of any uniform 
hand? 

9. What is a space in height of any uniform 
hand ? 

10. What does space and width of letters depend 
on in words ? 

11. Give the rule for letters joined by up curves. 

12. Give the rule for figures. 

13. How far should l’s be separated ? 

14. How far should words be separated? 

15. How far should sentences be separated ? 

16. How far should paragraphs be separated ? 

17. What is the basis of spacing? 

18. Is the theory of exact widths of single let¬ 
ters practicable? Why? 


148 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


19. What style of pen is best for shaded work ? 

20. Explain the automatism or automatic act of 
spacing. 

21. What are the sides of the rectangles (1) for 
standard slant, (2) for vertical hand in the scale? 

22. How then may the size of any hand-writing 
be changed ? 

23. Give the length in spaces of (1) the capital 
letters, (2) lower case. 

24. What is shading ? 

25. What is the basis of shading ? 

26. What are the uses of shading? 

27. What arguments in favor of dispensing with 
shading altogether in penmanship? 

28. What is the guide to shading? 

29. Should equal shades ever come together in 
the same letter? 

30. How are curves shaded ? 

31. How many shades should each letter, that is, 
shaded at all, receive ? 

32. How does the density of downward strokes 
compare with upward strokes? 

33. Where are lower case letters shaded ? 

34. Where are capital letters shaded ? 

35. How are figures shaded? 

36. What should be the general appearance of 
shade on the written page? 


Practice and Drawing. 


149 


CHAPTER VII. 


PRACTICE AND DRAWING. 


I. Definitions. 


2. Capitals 


1. Different Styles. 
- 2. Oblique. 

. 3. Vertical. 


3. Drawing. 

4. Illustrations. 

5. Tracing Method. 

6. Suggestion. 

7. Map Drawing... 

8. Illustrations. 


1. Philosophy of Drawing. 

2. Rules for Drawing. 


1. Materials. 

2. Coloring Materials. 

3. Necessary Processes. 


9. Review Questions. 









150 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER VII. 


PRACTICE AND DRAWING. 


PRACTICE. 

Practice consists in reducing conceptions of the 
mind to visible language by means of letters, words, 
signs, pictorial illustrations, etc., or, to be more 
exact, by means of the dot, straight line, right and 
left curves, because from these simple principles 
any form of which the human mind can conceive of 
may be executed. 

Practice comprehends not only a critical analysis 
of a form already visible, but of the way and man¬ 
ner in which a form already observed in the mind 
shall be produced, which act is understood to be 
based upon a thorough understanding of the mech¬ 
anism of the arm and hand and the principle gov¬ 
erning the association of ideas. 

To the Teacher.— Bring to the aid of the pupil all 
available helps possible to secure ease, freedom and uniform¬ 
ity of movement. Review movement, position, execution, 
analysis, etc., making sure the pupils are in possession of 
good ideals. 




Practice and Drawing. 


151 


GENERAL PRACTICE. 


5. As to Variety. 



The Lead Pencil. 

In practice or drill the use of the lead pencil, a 
portion of the time, is to be allowed, since no par¬ 
ticular angle is to be maintained between the point 
and the paper thus allowing rotation at pleasure 
and therefore less effort at poising, and as a result 
less fatigue; so that its use really serves as a rest 
notwithstanding the aim in the manner of execution 
remains the same. The pen may be resumed with¬ 
out danger of cramp. 



7. Business Capitals. 



Practice and Drawing. 


153 


CHART OF THE NATURAL .SYSTEM 
OF VERTICAL WRITING 


” s v ■ t •' • v ’• • • : i •• Tin 

nopQFSTumuxi|z 

OPTIONAL FORMS. 

an i) r g gmn of or. 


STANOARD FORMS. 


a 


& C d JL j’ f! gK,L J, k. TTL 

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FIGURES and SIGNS. 

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154 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 
GENERAL PRACTICE. 


9. Free Movement: Whole Arm. 



10. Old English. 




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Practice and Drawing. 


155 





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156 


Science and‘Art of Penmanship. 



II. DEAWI NG. 


Drawing is a delineation or representation of the 
appearance or figure of an object on a plain surface, 
by means of lines and shades. 

Explain the Terms. —Line, straight, curved, angle, 
obtuse, acute, parallel, square, rectangle, vertical, 
horizontal, oval, ellipse, point, turn, shade, expres¬ 
sion, outline zigzag, etc. 

Philosophy of Drawing. —* Drawing is a science 
and an art, and its soul is beauty, and beauty of de¬ 
sign as all other beauty rests on association. Prop- 


*Publishers “ American Series of Drawing Books.” 



Practice and Drawing. 


157 


erly conducted instruction in drawing is a far-reach¬ 
ing means of gesthetical education; but it must be 
properly conducted. From the very beginning, the 
ideas of purity, neatness, proportion, regularity, 
elegance, completeness, finish, strength, bloom, 
health, refinement, etc., must be associable and ac¬ 
tually associated with everything connected with 
this occupation. Clean, strong paper, a fine grade 
of pencils, scrupulously clean hands, models con¬ 
sisting or composed of regular straight or curved 
lines, of pleasing, well proportioned figures, or rep¬ 
resenting captivating objects, stars, leaves, flowers, 
animals, romantic ruins, brooks and bridges and 
ships—all this will work together for cultivating a 
sense of propriety and order, an eye for regularity 
and harmony, a refined taste for that which is truly 
beautiful, engendering pure and chaste and whole¬ 
some associations and again suggested by such as¬ 
sociation. 

*RULES FOR DRAWING. 

1. Maintain the position for writing. 

2. Do not incline the head forward or sideways. 

3. Place the drawing book parallel to the sides 
of the desk. Do not shift it about. 

4. Use a good lead pencil well pointed. 

5. Never wet the pencil. 

6. Draw the lines as faint as possible at first; 
they can always be made heavier. 


Concordia Publishing Co. 



158 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


7. When drawing rest your hand on a clean 
sheet of paper. 

8. Do not use an eraser too frequently as it ruins 
the drawing paper. 

9. Draw vertical lines downwards. 

10. Draw horizontal lines from left to right. 

11. Do not press hard on the pencil as heavy 
marks are hard to erase and show on the next page. 

12. Begin the drawing at the left and work down 
to the lower right side. 





































160 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 



This method consists (1) in placing transparent 
paper over the letter, map or picture of which a rep¬ 
resentation is desired and tracing the outlines, etc., 
preferably with a lead pencil, on the tracing paper. 
(2) Turn the tracing paper over and black the 
other side with the pencil. (3) On the surface 
where the representation is to remain permament lay 
the tracing paper, black side down. (4) Trace the 
outline over again and remove the tracing paper. A 
perfect copy appears on the drawing paper. (5) 
Finish over the penciled outlines with inked pen. 
(6) After the ink becomes dry erase all marks of 
the lead pencil. The drawing in ink will remain 
permanent. 

This method is available in securing unique and 
difficult outlines before sufficient adeptness has been 
attained to secure them otherwise and is sometimes 
seen to develop important characteristics of the 
caricaturist. 








































































162 


Science and Art of Penmanship 


■ 


y. 


I 




















Practice and Drawing, 


163 



To The Teacher. Insisting upon careful work only dur¬ 
ing the few minutes [20 to 40 minutes] of the writing 
lesson and at other times paying no attention to writ¬ 
ten work, you need not expect the best, or even good, re¬ 
sults. All written work must receive attention so that 
pupils will form the habit of doing their general work in 
writing or drawing circumspectly and well. 


164 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


MAP DRAWING. 

Map Drawing is very useful practice; not only 
does it fix in the mind form, location, extent and 
relative position of objects, but cultivates habits of 
tastes, appreciation of the beautiful in art and tends 
to lead to beautiful forms and designs aside from 
the geographical. 



Materials. —(1) Steel pens, (2) lead pencils, (3) 
pair of dividers, (4) eraser or piece of India rubber, 
(5) good black ink, (6) a scale with the inch di¬ 
vided into thirty parts, (7) strong, firm drawing 
paper. 

Coloring Materials.— (1) A cake of Prussian blue, 
(2) of crimson lake, red, (3) of gamboge, yellow, 
(4) of burnt sienna, light brown, (5) two or three 
small camel hair brushes. 















OHIO. 


Draw sixteen squares, as in the figure. A and 
B are middle points in the sides of squares, and 
the line connecting them indicates the southern 
coast of Lake Erie. The lines CD and DE indicate 
the southern boundary, EF the western boundary, 
and FG a part of the northern boundary. 

Upon squares and construction lines similar to 
those given below, maps of the different states or 
groups of states, as well as of the different countries 
of the world, may easily be drawn. 


, ,- 


Q 

^ /" 

i 

p" 



/ \ 

• - 
1 

^ J 

1 ■ - - 

• Vf 

1 

1 _ 

• r ^ 

i ) 

i rvJ 

i r 

i / 

S 

—' 


1 

! \ 1 

i t 

i # 

l s 

1 

1 ( 



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l / 


L, 

/ 1 
/ s' 



















166 


Science and Art op Penmanship. 


Necessary Processes to execute a perfect map.— 
(1) Draw the projection, (2) draw the outline, 
rivers, mountains and boundaries in pencil, (3) go 
over the pencilings in ink, (4) rub out the pencil 
marks, (5) locate the principal towns. If a colored 
map is to be drawn, lay on the colors before putting 
ink on the pencil marks. 

The Tracing Process is to be commended for be¬ 
ginners in map drawing. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is practice ? 

2. Of what elements or principles are all forms 
made up ? 

3. What does practice comprehend ? 

4. Why may the use of the lead pencil be al¬ 
lowed in practice a portion of the time ? 

5. Practice on all capitals herewith presented re¬ 
garding the same as “ exercises in practice,” both 
in standard slant and vertical hand. 

6. What is drawing? 

7. What is the philosophy of drawing? 

8. Give twelve rules for drawing. 

Remark.— The Penmanship class should be referred to 
geography, Marcator’s projection, conical projection, etc., 
discussed, and practice as a part of the science and art of 
penmanship the drawing of the different maps of the world 
as circumstances permit, and thus perhaps lead the way to 
the Fine Arts, Design, Crayon, Portraiture in black and 
white, etc. 


Practice and Drawing. 


167 


9. Practice on all illustrations herewith given as 
“ exercises in drawing.” 

10. How broaden our views in practice and draw¬ 
ing and become more proficient? 

Ans. By being willing to go out on all lines of 
investigation and bringing to our aid all available 
aids and helps from the best authorities. 

11. Explain the tracing method. 

12. Of what benefit is map drawing to the student 
in penmanship? 

13. Name the materials needed. 

14. Name the coloring materials. 

15. Give the necessary processes to execute a 
perfect map. 

16. May the penmanship class refer to the geogra¬ 
phy for further knowledge ? 

Ans. Yes. Refer to the geography or anything 
that will lead to clearer ideals of the subject in 
hand. 

17. Draw a map of Ohio; Indiana; United States. 


168 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 




CHAPTER VIII. 


CAPITALIZATION, ITALICS, ABBREYIA 
TIONS. 


I 


Capitalization. 


I 


1. Definition. 

2. Rules—1 to 21. 


2. Italics. 


1. Definition. 

2. Uses—1 to 9. 


3. Abbreviations. 


1. Objects. 

2. Exercises. 


4. Exercises. 


5. Review Questions. 





Capitalization. 


169 


CHAPTER VIII. 

CAPITALIZATION, ITALICIZATION AND 
ABBREVIATION. 

I. CAPITALIZATION.-RULES. 

Capitalization is the use of capitals in writing or 
in printing. 

Begin with a capital. 

1. The first word of a sentence, or the first word 
after a full pause; as, The clock ticks. The boy 
writes. 

2. The first word in every line of poetry ; as, 

Sweet day ! so cool, so calm, so bright, 

The bridal of the earth and sky ; 

The dews shall weep thy fall tonight; 

For thou must die.— Herbert. 

3. Proper names of persons, places, months and 
days; as, Harry, Chicago, June, Friday. 

4. Titles of honor or distinction; as, George the 
Third; Dr. Johnson; Gen. Grant. 

5. The names of things personified; as, Come, 
gentle Spring! 

6. The names of particular objects ; as, The Falls, 
The City of Magnificent Distances, The Cape of 
Good Hope. 

7. The first word of a direct quotation; as, Our 
teacher said, “ Be frank, honest, and truthful.” 


170 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


8. Words of special importance; as, The Tariff; 
the Commissioner of Pensions. 

9. All appellations of the Deity; as, God; Di¬ 
vine Providence; the Son; our Lord. 

10. Generic names in natural history; as, Fringilla 
Leo. 

11. Words derived from proper names; as, Ger¬ 
manic, Smithsonian. 

12. Names denoting race or nation ; as, The Cana¬ 
dians; the Spaniards; the Anglo-Saxons. 

13. Each item of an enumeration of particulars, 
in paragraphs; as, In Ohio it is six per cent; In 
N. Y., it is seven per cent. 

14. The first word after an introductory word or 
clause; as, Resolved , That we donate four dollars, 
etc. 

15. The words I and O ; as I, Abraham Lincoln ; 
Friendship, O friendship ! 

16. Names of public institutions, when used in a 
specific sense ; as, The Ohio Penitentiary. 

17. All proper nouns; as, John, Mary, Boston. 

18. Each article mentioned in accounts. 

19. Titles of office when they occur in rules and 
reports of societies; as, Treasurer, Secretary. 

20. The words north, south, east, and west refer¬ 
ring to sections of a country; as, In the East they 
have war; in the North and South-West, peace. 

21. Pronouns referring to names of the Deity, 
where their antecedents are understood; as u His 


Italicization. 


171 


rod, and His staff, they comfort me,” “ I will fear no 
evil for Thou art with me.” 

“ Thou art!—directing, guiding all—Thou art! ” 

“ Direct my understanding, then, to Thee.” 

II. ITALICIZATION. 

Italic, is a word applied especially to a kind of type 
in which the letters do not stand upright but slant 
towards the right, so-called because dedicated to the 
States of Italy by their inventor, Aldus Manutius,. 
A. D. 1500. 

This clause is printed in italics. 

Uses of Italics— To distinguish words for empha¬ 
sis, importance, antithesis, etc. 

1. The name of authors, following selections from 
their writings ; as, u My pride fell with my fortunes. ’ 
— Shakespeare. 

2. Their use in the Bible shows words inserted 
by the translators. They are not to be emphasized. 

3. Emphatic words or expressions are usually 
printed in italics. 

4. Names of parties in a dialogue, or the names 
of newspapers, books, vessels, etc., are usually 
printed in italics; as, The Cincinnati Enquirer „ 
Two Souls under X. Ray , The Maine. 

( George ) Good morning, Emma. 

( Emma) Good morning, sir. 

5. In a series forming a climax, the first is put 
in italics, the second in small capitals, the third in 
capitals; as, I will not agree to it; never , never, 
NEVER! 


172 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


6. In chapters and poems the first word is gener¬ 
ally printed in small capitals. 

7. One line placed under a word denotes italics ; 
two lines, small capitals; three lines, capitals; four 
lines, italicized capitals. 

8. Words borrowed from foreign languages should 
be printed in italics; as, Each symptom per se. 

9. Names of important personages are frequently 
printed in small capitals. 

10. Full-faced types are used in many works for 
distinction; such is the case in this work. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

[After learning the ABB RE VIA TIONS, pupils will be re¬ 
quired to construct and write sentences , appropriately using them.'] 


A.A.S. Fellowof the Amer¬ 
ican Academy. 

A. B. Bachelor of Arts. 
Abp. Archbishop. 

A. C. or B. C. Before Christ. 
Acct. Account. 

A. D. In the year of our 
Lord. 

iEt. Aged. 

Ala. Alabama. 

Alex. Alexander. 

A. M. Master of Arts; Be¬ 
fore noon; In the year 
of the world. 

A. or Am. American. 
Anon. Anonymous. 

Apr. April. 

Ark. Arkansas. 

Att. Attorney. 

Aug. August. 

Bbl. Barrel. 

B. C. Before Christ. 

B. D. Bachelor of Divinity. 
Bp. Bishop. 

B. V. Blessed Virgin. 


C. or Cent. A hundred. 
Cal. California ; Calendar. 
Capt. Captain. 

Cash. Cashier. 

C. E. Civil Engineer. 

C. J. Chief Justice. 

Co. Company ; County. 
Col. Colonel; Colossians. 
Coll. College. 

Cong. Congress. 

Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 
Const. Constable. 

Cr. Credit or Creditor. 

Cts. Cents. 

Cwt. A hundred weight. 

D. C. District of Columbia. 

D. D. Doctor of Divinity. 
Dea. Deacon. 

Dec. December. 

Del. Delaware; Delegate. 
Dist. District. 

Do. Ditto ; the same. 

$ or Dolls. Dollars. 

Doz. Dozen. 

Dr. Debtor; Doctor. 




Abbreviations. 


173 


E. East; Earl. 

Ed. Edition ; Editor. 

E. G. For Example. 

Eng. England; English. 
Esq. Esquire. 

Etc. And so forth. 

Exc. Excellency. 

Et. al. And others. 

Feb. February. 

Fig. Figure. 

Flor. or Fa. Florida. 

Fr. France ; Francis ; 

French. 

Fri. Friday. 

F. R. S. Fellow of the 
Royal Society. 

F. S. A. Fellow of the So¬ 
ciety of Arts. 

Ga. Georgia. 

Gen. General. 

Gent. Gentleman. 

Gtt. Drops. 

Gov. Governor. 

H. B. M. His or Her Bri¬ 
tannic Majesty. 

Hhd. Hogshead. 

Hon. Honorable. 

H. R. House of Represen¬ 
tatives. 

H. S. S. Fellow of the His¬ 
torical Society. 

Hund. Hundred. 

Hyd. Hydrostatics. 

Ib. or Ibid. In the same 
place. 

Id. The same. 

I. e. That is. 

I. H. S. Jesus the Saviour 
of men. 

Ill. Illinois. 

Incog. Unknown. 

Ind. Indiana. 

Inst. Instant—the present 
month. 

Int. Interest. 

Io. Iowa. 

It. Italian; Italy. 

J. Judge. 


Jan. January. 

Jas. James. 

Jno. John. 

Jos. Joseph. 

Jul. July. 

J. P. Justice of the Peace. 
Jr. or Jun. Junior. 

Kan. Kansas. 

Ky. Kentucky. 

L. 1. <£. A pound sterling. 
La. Louisiana. 

Lat. Latin; Latitude. 
Legis. Legislature. 

Lieut. Lieutenant. 

LL. D. Doctor of Laws. 
Lon. Longitude. 

Lou. or La. Louisiana. 

L. S. Place of the Seal. 

M. Marquis ; Monsieur ; 
Mile ; Morning ; Noon ; 
Thousand. 

Maj. Major. 

Mar. March. 

Mass. Massachusetts. 
Math. Mathematics. 

M. C. Member of Con¬ 
gress. 

M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 
Md. Maryland. 

Me. Maine. 

Messrs. Gentlemen ; Sirs. 
Mich. Michigan. 

Minn. Minnesota. 

Miss, or Mi. Mississippi. 
Mo. Missouri ; Month. 
Mon. Monday. 

M. P. Member of Parlia¬ 
ment. 

Mr. Master or Mister. 

Mrs. Mistress. 

MS. Manuscript. 

Mt. Mount or Mountain. 

N. North; Note; Number. 

N. A. North America. 

N. B. Take Notice. 

N. C. North Carolina. 

N. E. North-East; New 
England. 





174 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Neb. Nebraska. 

Nev. Nevada. 

N. H. New Hampshire. 

N. J. New Jersey. 

N. M. New Mexico. 

No. Number. 

N. O. New Orleans. 

Nov. November. 

N. S. Nova Scotia ; New 
Style. 

N. T. New Testament. 

N. W. North-West. 

N. Y. New York. 

O. Ohio. 

Ob. (Obiit.) Died. 

Obt. Obedient. 

Oct. October. 

On. or Or. Oregon. 

O. S. Old Style. 

O. T. Old Testament. 

Oz. Ounce or Ounces. 

Pa. or Penn. Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

Per or pr. By the ; as, per 
yard. 

Per ct. By the hundred. 
Ph. D. Doctor of Philoso¬ 
phy. 

P. M. Post-Master; After¬ 
noon. 

P. O. Post Office. 

Pres. President. 

Prof. Professor. 

Pro tern. For the time 
being. 

Prox. Next month. 

P. S. Postscript. 

Ps. Psalms. 

Pub. Public; Publisher. 
Pub. Doc. Public Docu¬ 
ment. 

Q. Question ; Queen. 

Q. L. As much as you 
please. 

Q. S. A sufficient quan¬ 
tity. 

Qt. Quart ; Quantity. 


Q. Y. Which see; As 
much as you please. 

Rec. Sec. Recording Sec¬ 
retary. 

Rep. Representative; Re¬ 
public. 

Rev. Revelations; Rev¬ 
erend. 

R. I. Rhode Island. 

Robt. Robert. 

R. R. Railroad. 

Rt. Hon. Right Honor¬ 
able. 

Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 

R. Take. 

S. Seconds; Shilling; 
Sign ; South. 

S. A. South America. 

Sam. Samuel. 

Sat. Saturday. 

S. C. South Carolina. 

Sc. or Sculp. ( Sculpsit .) He, 
or she, engraved it. 

S. E. South-East. 

Sec. Secretary. 

Sen. Senator ; Senior. 

Sig. Signature. 

Ss. Namely ; Half. 

Sept. September. 

Serj. Serjeant. 

Sp. Spain ; Spanish. 

Sr. Senior. 

Sun. Sunday. 

S. S. Sunday School. 

S. W. South-West. 

Tenn. Tennessee. 

Tex. Texas. 

Thu. Thursday. 

Tr. Treasurer. 

Tu. Tuesday. 

Ult. Last, or the last 
month. 

U. S. United States. 

U. S. A. United States of 
America ; United States 
Army. 

U. S. M. United States 
Mail. 




Abbreviations. 


175 


U. S. M. A. United States 
Military Academy. 

U. S. N. United States 
Navy. 

U. S. S. United States 
Senate. 

V. ( Vide.) See; Verse. 
Ya. Virginia. 

Viz. Namely ; To-wit. 
Vol. or vol. Volume. 

V. P. Vice-President. 

Vt. Vermont. 


W. West, or Week. 

Wis. Wisconsin. 

W. Va. West Virginia. 

X. or Xt. Christ. 

Xm. or Xmas. Christmas. 

Y. Year. 

Yd. or yd. Yard. 

Yds. or yds. Yards. 

You’d. You would, or you 
had. 

Zool. Zoology. 

&c. And so forth. 


Abbreviate is to shorten; to make briefer. 


Abbreviation is shortening or reducing by con¬ 
traction and omission. 

EXERCISES. 


Abbreviate the following: Aged; America; 
United States of America; General; And Others; 
Dollars; Cents; Postscript; See; Namely; Signa¬ 
ture; United States Senate. [Exercises should be 
given frequently.] 

Expand the following: N. Y.; S. A.; Rep ; 
Rev.; &c. ; Prox.; Ph. D.; M. D.; D. D.; LL. D.; 
Ult.; Inst.; P. O. [These may be extended in¬ 
definitely.] 

Capitalize the following: (1) I saw an article 
written by Mr. john kinnear of Cleveland Ohio. (2) 
We passed through st. louis on our way to California 
to see my uncle, henry M. mills. (3) My friend 
said, “ be honest and frank,” etc., etc. 

To the Teacher : The drill on the use of capitals and 
abbreviations should receive attention in the pupil’s 
general work, aside from class work. 



176 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Construct and write sentences appropriately 
using the abbreviations. 

KEVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is Capitalization? 

2. What is Rule First ? 

3. What is Rule Second ? 

4. Give twelve rules for the use of capitals. 

5. What is the meaning of italic ? 

6. Why are italics so called ? 

7. Who invented italics? When? 

8. Give six uses of italics. 

9. What does one line placed under a word 
denote ? 

10. What does two lines placed under a word 
denote ? 

11. What does three lines placed under a word 
denote ? 

12. What does four lines placed under a word 
denote ? 

13. Define Abbreviate. 

14. Define Abbreviation. 

lb. What are the uses of abbreviation? 

16. Abbreviate the following : Ohio; North Caro¬ 
lina; County; United States; North America. 

[Drill on abbreviating the names of all the States— 
writing same neatly and carefully.] 

17. Expand La., Admr., i. e., e. g., &c., &c. 

[Drill thoroughly varying the exercise owing to the 
wants of the pupil.] 


Punctuation. 


177 


CHAPTER IX. 


PUNCTUATION. 


I. Definition and Uses. 


f 1. 


2. Divisions_ 


Rhetorical 

Points. 


2. Referential 

Points. 


3. 


Etymological 

Points. 


3. Exercises. 


4. Review 

Questions. 


4. Typical .. 
(Lines) 


1. Period. 

2. Interrogation Point. 

3. Exclamation Point. 

4. Colon. 

h. Semicolon. 

6. Comma. 

7. Dash. 

8. Curves. 

9. Brackets. 

10. Quotation Marks. 

1. Asterisk. 

2. Obelisk or Dagger. 

3. Dieresis or Double 


4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 

9. 

10 . 


Parallels. 
Section. 
Paragraph. 
Leaders. 

Index or Hand. 

Brace. 

Asterism. 


[Dagger. 


1. Apostrophe. 


2. Caret. 

3. Hyphen. 

4. Dieresis. 

5. Macron. 

6. Breve. 

{ 7. Tilde. 

8. Grave Accent. 

9. Acute Accent. 

10. Circumflex Accent. 

11. Dot. 

12. Cedilla. 

I 13. Suspended Bar. 

1. Italics. 

2. Small Capitals. 

3. Large Capitals. 


4. Italic Capitals. 



















178 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER IX. 

* PUNCTUATION. 

1. Punctuation is the use of certain characters to 
aid the reader in determining the thought of a 
writer, to mark degrees of separation between sen¬ 
tences and parts of sentences, and to indicate the 
pronunciation of words. 

2. Punctuation is of four kinds; Rhetorical , 
Referential , Etymological and Typical. 

3. Rhetorica! Punctuation is that used to deter¬ 
mine the structure of sentences. 

4. The Rhetorical Points: 


The Period, 

(•) 

The Interrogation Point,(?) 

The Exclamation Point, (!) 

The Colon, 

(:) 

The Semicolon, 

(;) 

The Comma, 

(,) 

The Dash, 

(-) 

The Curves, 

() 

The Brackets, 

[] 

Quotation Marks, 

(“ ”), (‘ ’)• 


* The New Orthography. 


Punctuation. 


179 


THE PERIOD. 

1. The period should be placed after every de¬ 
clarative and imperative sentence, when not con¬ 
nected in construction with what follows. 

Examples —“No excellence without great labor. ” 
Labor to excel. 

2. The period should be placed after abbrevia¬ 
tions ; as; Mr., O., etc. 

Exceptions —“ @, 6 th, etc. 

3. The period should be placed before decimals 
and between the dollars and cents in U. S. money • 
as, .365, $42.63. 

4. The period should be placed after a heading; as, 

THE LION. 

5. The period should be placed after letters used 
as numerals; as, James II., Matthew VI., 3, 4, etc. 

Note. —A period after an abbreviation does not take the 
place of other points. 

THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

1. The interrogation point should be placed at 
the end of every question; as, Where are you 
going? Eh? 

2. The interrogation point enclosed in curves or 
brackets is sometimes placed after a doubtful state¬ 
ment; as, Arnold was a loyal (?) American. 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

1. The exclamation point should be placed after 
every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, or 


180 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


expression; as, How silently the starlight falls to¬ 
night ! How fresh are these meadows ! how green ! 
etc. Hark ! the wind blows with unabating fury. 

2. The exclamation point should be placed after 
interjections unless very closely connected with 
other words; Pshaw! you are trifling. 

3. More than one exclamation point may be used 
to denote intensity of emotion; as, My hoy! My 
boy!! MY BOY!!! 

4. The exclamation point enclosed in curves or 
brackets is sometimes placed after an expression to 
denote wonder or contempt. 

Example —This great (!) scholar makes blunders. 

THE COLON. 

1. A colon should be placed after a clause that 
is complete in itself, but does not conclude the 
sentence; as, “ Be yourself: never imitate.” 

2. A colon should be placed between the major 
divisions of a long complex or compound sentence 
when the minor divisions are separated by semi¬ 
colons ; as, “ Man has effected wonders; he is every 
day advancing in knowledge and power: yet, sur¬ 
passed by Nature in even her humblest efforts, he 
cannot so much as make a blade of grass.” 

3. A colon should be placed before a formal 
enumeration of particulars, or a direct quotation, 
referred to by the words following , as follows , these , 
thus , etc.; as, Grammar is considered under four 


Punctuation. 


181 


heads: first, Orthography; second, Etymology; 
third, Syntax ; fourth, Prosody. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

1. The semicolon should be placed between the 
members of a compound sentence unless short and 
closely connected; as, The wheel of fortune is ever 
turning; who can say, u I shall be uppermost to¬ 
morrow ? ” 

2. The semicolon should be placed between the 
major divisions of sentences, when minor divisions 
occur that are separated by commas; as, u And he 
gave some, apostles, and some, prophets; and some i 
evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers.” 

3. The semicolon should be placed before the 
words as , namely , to-wit , etc., when used to intro¬ 
duce examples; as, One vocation is universally de¬ 
spised ; to-wit , the liar’s. 

4. The semicolon should be placed before an in¬ 
formal enumeration of particulars; as, u There are 
four genders ; the masculine, etc.” 

5. The semicolon should be used to separate the 
particulars in a formal enumeration of particulars . 
as, Grammar is considered under four heads: first. 
Orthography; second, etc. 

6. The semicolon should be used to separate the 
members of a compound sentence, when the con¬ 
nective is omitted; as, The birds swing on the 
bough ; the cattle stand in the pool. 


182 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


THE COMMA. 

1. The comma is used between the names of a 
series; as, The chair, table, door, and box are made 
of wood. 

2. Appositional expressions should be set off by 
commas; as, Washington, the general, became 
Washington, the statesman. 

3. Words repeated for emphasis should be set off 
by commas; as, Verily, verily, I say unto you. 

4. The comma is used when the verb is omitted 
to avoid repetition;. as, “Some came to see; others, 
to hear. ” 

5. Pairs of words are set off from each other by 
commas; as, “Sink or swim, live or die, survive or 
perish, I give my heart and hand to this vote.” 

6. Words introduced into a quotation should be 
set off by commas; as, u My mind,” said he, “is 
a kingdom to me.” 

7. The comma should be used between two cor¬ 
relative clauses. 

Example —“As we do to others, so shall it be 
done to us.” 

8. The comma should be placed after the logical 
subject of a sentence when it ends with a verb, or 
when it consists of parts which are themselves sepa¬ 
rated by commas. 

Examples —1. Those who try, should try with a 
will. 

2. Cows, horses, and sheep, were 
huddled together. 


Punctuation. 


183 


9. Pleonastic nouns and pronouns, and those 
used in direct address should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas. 

Example — u Hear, father, hear our prayer ? ” Our 
work, how tedious! 

10. Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are 
usually set off by commas. 

Example — 1 Truly, you are a noble man. 

11. A comma is used to prevent ambiguity. 

Examples —He was overtaken perhaps, while 

sleeping. He was overtaken, perhaps while sleeping. 

12. The comma should be placed before the in¬ 
finitive mode when it expresses a purpose. 

Example —We tarried awhile at the capitol, to see 
the president. 

13. The comma should be used when the mean¬ 
ing is thereby made clearer. 

dash. 

1. A dash is used to denote a break in the con¬ 
struction. 

Example —Glory—What is it? 

2. A dash is used to denote a sudden interrup¬ 
tion, or hesitation. 

Examples — u You know my feelings; you know” 
— u Hold ! ” interrupted my friend, “ I think I—I— 
I—” “ No you don’t.” 

3. The dash is used to denote the omission of 
letters, figures, or of a word. 


184 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Examples In the year 18—, I stopped over night 
at the village of -with my friend S-. 

4. The dash is sometimes used instead of the 
curves to enclose a parenthetical expression. 

Example He said u John—for that was the boy’s 
name—will you bring me some water?” 

5. Ihe dash is used to denote a transition in the 
sentiment. 

Example —London is noted for its magnificent 
buildings, its extensive shipping, and—its dexterous 
pick-pockets. 

6. In letter-writing the dash is used after the 
salutation. 

Example —My dear Friend:—Your letter, etc. 

7. Ihe dash is used to denote an emphatic repe¬ 
tition. 

Example —Few—few there are, etc. 

8. I he dash is used to separate the number from 
Hie heading of the chapter, and the heading from 
the paragraph. 

Examples— Chapter X.—The horse. 

Something new —Dr. Squires has recently in¬ 
vented, etc. 

9. The dash is used to separate the name of an 
author from his writings. 

Example— u In solitude, we are at least alone.”— 
Byron. 

THE CURVES. 

1. The curves are used to enclose words which 
explain, modify or add to the main proposition, 





Punctuation. 


185 


when so introduced as to break the connection be¬ 
tween the dependent parts. 

Example —Every star (so astronomy teaches) is a. 

sun. 

2. In dramatic compositions, directions and ex¬ 
planations to the performer are enclosed in curves. 

Example George — He does not know me. 
(Aside.) 

3. A parenthesis should be punctuated the same 
as an independent expression. 

Example — 

“ I love (oh, how I love) to ride 
On the fierce, foaming, bursting tide. ” 

4. If a point is needed in the position occupied 
by the parenthesis, it usually stands after the last 
curve. 

Example — If kindness rules (and it certainly 
does), let us be kind. 

5. The curves are used to enclose points, figures, 
or letters added for some special purpose. 

Examples —(a) Hon. (?) John Jones, etc. 

(b) This great; (!) scholar makes blun¬ 
ders. 

THE BRACKETS. 

1. Brackets are used to enclose words, phrases, 
and clauses explanatory of what precedes them, to 
correct errors and to mark manifestations of ap¬ 
proval or dissent in public speeches. 

Example —Each pupil should study their [his] 
lesson. 


186 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


2. Brackets are sometimes used as marks of 
parenthesis to inclose directions to performers, etc % 
in dramatic compositions. 

3. The expressions within brackets are punctu¬ 
ated in the same manner as parenthetical expres¬ 
sions. 

4. Brackets are used in lexicography to enclose 
the pronunciation of words. 

Examples —They [tha,], Mirage [mi-razli]. 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

1. The quotation marks are used to show that a 
passage is taken verbatim from another. 

Example —Mary says, “The Mississippi flows up 
hill.” 

2. A quotation within a quotation is set off with 
single quotation marks. 

Example —“Do you believe 'a stitch in time saves 
nine ’ ? ” said my friend. 

3. When an enclosed quotation itself contains a 
quotation the latter should have the double marks. 

Example —“ The teacher said, 1 what a lesson the 
word “perseverance” contains!’” 

4. The quotation marks need not be used, when a 
quotation from another language is printed in italics. 

Example —The motto of Ohio is, Imperium in. 
imperio. 

5. The inverted commas should be placed before 
each stanza when several are quoted in regular 
order, but the apostrophes after the last only. 


Punctuation. 


18 


Example — 

“ Go to thy rest, fair child ! 

Go to thy dreamless bed, 

While yet so gentle, undefiled, 

With blessings on thy head. 

“ Fresh roses in thy hand, 

Buds on thy pillow laid, 

Haste from this dark and fearful land, 

Where flowers so quickly fade. ” 

REFERENTIAL PUNCTUATION. 

1. Referential Punctuation is that used for ref¬ 
erences only. 

THE REFERENTIAL POINTS. 


The Asterisk, 

(*) 

The Obelisk or Dagger, 

(t) 

The Diesis or Double Dagger, (J) 

The Parallels, 

(id 

The Section, 

(§) 

The Paragraph, 

(i) 

The Leaders, 

( ) 

The Index or Hand, 


The Brace, 

(—) 

The Asterism, 

(***) 


3. The Asterisk, Dagger, Double Dagger, the- 
Section, Parallels, and the Paragraph are used, in 
the order presented, when references are made to 
remarks or notes in the margin, at the bottom of 
the page, or some other part of the book. 

Note. —Letters and figures are used for the same purpose.. 


188 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


4. The Section is sometimes used to divide books 
or chapters into smaller portions. 

5. The Paragraph denotes the commencement of 
a new subject. 

6. The Index points out a passage for special 
attention. 

7. The Asterism is sometimes used instead of 
the index. 

8. The Leaders are used to direct the eye to the 
right across a blank space. 

9. The Brace is used to connect several terms to 
something to which they are all related. 

ETYMOLOGICAL POINTS. 

1. Etymological Punctuation is that used in or¬ 
thography and in orthoepy to aid in the pronuncia¬ 
tion of words. 

2. For the use of the Diacritical marks, see 
Webster’s Dictionary. 

THE ETYMOLOGICAL POINTS. 


3. The Apostrophe, (») 

The Caret, (a) 

The Hyphen, (-) 

The Dieresis, (") 

The Macron, (—) 

The Breve, (~) 

The Tilde, (~) 

The Grave Accent, (') 

The Acute Accent, (') 

The Circumflex Accent, (—) 

The Dot, (•) 

The Cedilla, ( y y 

The Suspended Bar. (±) 


Punctuation. 


189 


4. The Apostrophe is used to denote the omis¬ 
sion of letters and the possessive case of nouns. 

Examples —Don’t run. It is John’s fault. 

o. The Apostrophe is used in the formation of 
the plurals of letters, figures, marks and signs. 

Examples —The a’s, the 7’s, the ||’s, and the +’s. 

6. The Caret, besides its diacritical use, is used 
to denote the omission of letters or words. 

best c 

Examples —Honesty is the poiiy. 

A A 

7. The Hyphen is used to divide words into syl¬ 
lables, alter a syllable at the end of a line when 
part of the word is carried to the next line, and to 
connect the parts of some compound words. 

Examples —Ac-ci-dent, con-tact, bone-dust. 

8. The Dieresis is placed over the latter of two 
vowels to show that they are to be pronounced sep¬ 
arately ; as, Creator, aerial. 

9. The Grave and Acute Accent marks are 
placed over a single vowel to show that it forms a 
separate syllable; as, a'ged, blessed. 

10. The Grave and Acute Accent marks are also 
used to indicate the rising and falling inflections in 
reading. 

11. The Circumflex Accent is used to indicate 
the union of both inflections on the same sound. 

TYPICAL PUNCTUATION. 

1. Typical Punctuation is that used by the writer 
to direct the printer as to the kind of type to be used. 


190 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


2. In manuscript, one line under a word or ex¬ 
pression denotes italics. 

Example—Onward and upward. 

3. In manuscript, two lines under a word or ex¬ 
pression denote small capitals. 

Example — Rules governing the objective case. 

4. In manuscript three lines under a word or 
expression denote large capitals. 

Example —THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 

5. In manuscript four lines under a word or 
expression denote italic capitals. 

Example —THE NOUN . 

PUNCTUATION. 

EXERCISES. 

Justify each capital letter and punctuation mark 
in the following sentences : 

1. The first maxim among philosophers and men 
of sense everywhere is, that merit only, should 
make distinctions. 

2. This is a precept of Socrates: u Know thy¬ 
self.” 

3. We know the uses—and sweet they are—of 
adversity. 

4. Telegraph is divided thus : tel-e-graph. 

5. “ What a lesson,” Trench well says, “ the word 
diligence ’ contains ! ” 








Punctuation. 


191 


6. A bigot’s mind is like the pupil of the eye; 
the more light you pour upon it the more it con¬ 
tracts. 

7. This is the motto of the University of Oxford: 
“ The Lord is my light.” 

Use capital letters and proper marks of punctua¬ 
tion in the following sentences and give reasons :— 

1. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross 
your ts and make your 7s unlike your 9s 2. man the 
life boat. 3. the human species is composed of two 
distinct races those who borrow and those who lend 
4. the advice given ran thus take care of the min¬ 
utes and the hours will take care of themselves 5. 
frauds II charles IX and henry III three sons of 
Catherine de medici and henry II sat upon the 
french throne 

To the Teacher. — If further work in punctuation is 
needed pupils may be required to justify the capitalization 
and punctuation of sentences found in the school journal. 
They may be required to justify their own work in “ Exer¬ 
cises” Chapter X., or sentences maybe placed on the board 
for correction, from day to day. The pupil’s work should all 
be done in writing. 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

1. What is punctuation? 

2. How many kinds of punctuation ? Name them. 

3. What is rhetorical punctuation? 

4. Name and execute all the rhetorical points. 

5. Give five rules for the use of the period. 

6. Give two rules for the use of the interroga¬ 
tion point. 


192 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


7. Give four rules for the use of the exclamation 
point. 

8. Give three rules for the use of the colon. 

9. Give six rules for the use of the semicolon. 

10. Give thirteen rules for the use of the comma. 

11. Give nine rules for the use of the dash. 

12. Give five rules for the use of the curves. 

13. Give four rules for the use of the bracket. 

14. Give five rules for the use of quotation marks. 

15. What is referential punctuation? 

16. Name and execute all referential points. 

17. Give uses of asterisk, dagger, double dagger, 
section and paragraph. 

18. What does the paragraph denote ? 

19. What does the index point out? 

20. What are leaders used for ? 

21. What is the brace used for? 

22. What is etymological punctuation? 

23. Name and execute these points. 

24. Give uses of the apostrophe. 

25. For what is the caret used? 

26. For what is the hyphen used ? 

27. For what is the dieresis used? 

28. For what is the grave and acute accent used? 

29. For what is the circumflex used ? 

30. What is typical punctuation? 

31. Give the significance of one, two, three, and 
four lines placed under words. 

[For the use of Diacritical marks see Webster’s Dic¬ 
tionary.] 


Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


193 


CHAPTER X. 


LETTER WRITING AND BUSINESS FORMS. 


I. Definitions. 


2. Parts of a Letter. 


T 1. Heading. 

I 2. Addiess. 

I 3. Salutation. 

-J 4. Body. 

I 5. Complimentary Closing. 
| 6. Signature. 

L 7. Superscription. 


3. Addresses. 

4. Outlines. 


5. General Directions. 


r First. 

6. Methods of Folding.- \ Second. 

[ Third. 


f 1 . Man’s Life. 

7. Suggestive Forms and Subjects j | Buti?s°toSelf'. 

[ 4. Duties to Others. 

8. Forms. 

9. Cautions. 

I 0. Exercises. 

I I. Notes and Drafts. 

I 2. Miscellaneous. 

13. Review Questions. 




194 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


CHAPTER X. 


LETTER WRITING AND MANUSCRIPT WORK. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Letter —A written communication from one to 
another. 

A Theme is the subject upon which a person 
writes. 

Composition is the expression of thought in written 
language. 

Essay is a composition in which the writer states 
his views upon a given subject. 

Argumentative Essay is one that states a thing to 
be true and proceeds to prove it. 

Didactic Essay is one that conveys in a simple, 
concise way some important instruction. 

Scientific Essay is one that explains or discusses 
some scientific truth. 

Direct Discourse tells what somebody says by 
using the authors own words. 

Indirect Discourse tells what somebody says with¬ 
out using the author’s own words. 

A Direct Question can be answered by yes or no. 




Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


195 


An Indirect Question can not be answered by yes 
or no. 

Narration is relating events in order of their 
occurrence. 

A Proposition is the thought expressed in a sen¬ 
tence. 

Quotation is the repetition of the words of another. 

Anonymous means without the name of the author. 

Nom de plume is a name assumed by an author as 
his or her signature. 

Autograph —A person’s own handwriting. 

Monograph —A special treatise on a particular 
subject of limited range. 

Monogram —A representation of interwoven let¬ 
ters abbreviating a name. 

Calligraphy is fair, elegant or beautiful penman¬ 
ship. 

Chirography is a writing by one’s own hand. 

Brochure is a written or printed work, stitched 
and containing only a few leaves. 

Billet is a short letter or note in writing. 

Billet doux is a term referring to a love letter. 

Post Script is a paragraph added to a letter, after 
it is concluded and signed. 

Appendix is literary matter added to a book but 
not necessarily essential to its composition. 


196 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


A Seal is a stamp used, making an impression as 
a part of a document to legalize, authenticate or 
secure it. 

Epistolography is the art or practice of letter¬ 
writing. 

The Divisions of a letter are the parts into which 
it is divided. 

The Parts of a Letter are seven : (1) Heading 

(2) Address. (3) Salutation. (4) Body. (5) Com¬ 
plimentary Closing. (6) Signature. (7) Superscrip¬ 
tion. 

1. The Heading is the name of the place and 
date. 

2. The Address is the name of the person to 
whom the letter is written. 

3. The Salutation is the greeting before begin¬ 
ning the body of the letter. 

4. The Body is the communication proper. 

5. The Complimentary Closing follows the 
body of the letter. 

6. The Signature follows the complimentary 
closing. 

7. The Superscription is the full address writ¬ 
ten on the envelope beginning well over to the 
left, half way between the top and bottom. 


Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


197 


Albany N. Y., March 1st., 1898. 
(Address) Mr. L. P. Adams, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

(Salutation) My Dear Sir : 

(Body.) Yours of the 18 ult. came duly to hand. I 
thank you for the information it contains. If I can 
in any way repay the obligation under which you 
have placed me, I shall be happy to do so. 

(Complimentary closing) Yours Sincerely, 

(Signature) W. S. WALKER. 

The salutation depends upon the relation of the 
parties; as, Dear Sir, Dear Mother, Esq., Sir, My 
Darling Daughter. 

The conclusion depends also upon the relation of 
the parties; as, Very Respectfully, Sincerely, Yours 
Affectionately. 

THE SUPERSCRIPTION—FORMS. 

( 1 ) 


[STAMP.] 


Mrs. C. S. Page, 

Springfield, 

Ohio. 



198 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


( 2 ) 




[stamp.] 


Mr. J. W. 

Norris, 



Union Village, 

Allen Co. 


Md. 

(3) 


[stamp.] 


Samuel Miller, M. D., 

213 Sycamore St., 

Wilmington, 

Ohio. 

Introducing Mr. Smith. 




Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


199 


(4) 


Mr. and Mrs. Janies Riley and Family. 


Envelope enclosing a note of invitation. It is never 
stamped but is itself inclosed in a larger envelope. 

ADDRESSES. 

An Unmarried Lady— Miss Eve Herrington. 

A Married Lady— (1) Mrs. Amanda Miller, (2) 
Mrs. George W. Miller. 

A Gentleman — (1) Mr. Moses Price, (2) Moses 
Price, Esq. 

A Physician— (1) Dr. Fillmore Young, (2) Fill¬ 
more Young, M. D. 

A Dentist— (1) Dr. Alexander Greer, (2) Alex¬ 
ander Greer, D. D. S. 

A Business House or Firm —(1) Mr. John Doe, 
(2) Messrs. Doe, Aikens & Co. 

An Eminent Teacher— Prof. Alfred Holbrook. 



200 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


A Clergyman.— 

1. (Who has not received the degree of Doctor of 
Divinity.) The Rev. Charles Benson. 

2. (Who has received the above named degree.) 
The Rev. Dr. John Brock or the Rev. John Brock, 
D. D. 

The Head of a Department of Government, a 
Member of Congress, a Judge, or the Mayor of a 
City —The Honorable William D. Curtis. 

The President of the United States— His Excel 
lency, William McKinley, President of the United 
States. 

The Governor of a State— His Excellency, Levi 
P. Morton, Governor of the State of New York. 

Paragraphs are divisions of a letter. 

The Marginal Line is the real or imaginary line 
from one-fourth to one inch from the left edge of 
the paper extending vertically. 

The Paragraph Line is a real or imaginary line 
from one-half to one inch to the right of the 
marginal line extending vertically down the page. 
Every line after the first should begin at the mar¬ 
ginal line. 

OUTLINES. 

All letters should be outlined before written 
unless very short. This produces clearness. 


Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


201 


Outline of a letter describing a trip : 

The start; people traveling; incidents ; accidents; 
peculiar persons; the weather; the arrival; descrip¬ 
tion of the place; the outlook; what was accom¬ 
plished ; the return. 

Outline of a letter to a parent in answer to one 
received : 

Our happiness to hear; will follow his suggestions; 
how we are; changes, if any; the weather; wishes 
of success ; hopes for his speedy return home, etc. 

A Note of Invitation: 

Mrs. S. M. Smith requests the pleasure of Mrs. 
Henry Joseph’s company on Thursday evening next 
at 6 o’clock. 

Monday, June 29th. 1898. 

Reply— Accepting Invitation : 

Mrs. Joseph presents her compliments to Mrs. 
Smith and will be happy to accept her invitation 
for Thursday evening next. 

Monday, June 29th, ’98. 

Reply — Declining Invitation : 

Mrs. Joseph thanks Mrs. Smith for her kind 
invitaiion which, she regrets, she cannot accept in 
consequence of another engagement. 

Monday, June 29th, ’98. 

Note.—T eachers may profitably spend the whole time of 
the lesson occasionally outlining and arranging thought for 
letter-writing. A plan should be decided upon owing to 
the nature of the subject. 


202 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN LETTER 
WRITING. 

1. Make so plain as to render a mistake impossi¬ 
ble (1) the name of the place and date, (2) the name 
of the person writing, (3) the superscription on the 
envelope. 

2. Avoid unnecessary cross lines, parentheses, 
quotation marks, dashes and carets. 

3. Do not use colored inks and fancy paper, nor 
underline words simply to make them emphatic. 

4. Say in your own simple, easy natural style 
what you have to say without seeming too familiar 
nor too formal. 

5. Outline — take time and thought to write cor¬ 
rectly, securing a certain amount of respect for the 
person addressed and also for the writer. 

6. Never send an anonymous letter nor pay any 
attention to one when received. 

7. Be correct in spelling, use of capitals and 
punctuation, covering all the points and making 
them clear by a few plain, well-chosen, common 
and familiar words. 

METHODS OF FOLDING. 

The letter should be neatly folded with the first 
page inside as follows : 

Fold from the lower edge upward or from the upper 
edge downward to the extent of one-third and bring 
the remaining part exactly over the first fold, or 


Letter Writing and Manuscript Work. 


203 - 


Fold the sheet upon itself from right to left bring¬ 
ing its edges together and then fold from below 
upward bringing the lower edge upon the upper, or 

Fold the lower edge upon the upper, bring a third 
of this over from right to left and the remaining 
part over this from left to right. 

LETTER-WRITING AND MANUSCRIPTS. 

Suggestive Forms, Subjects and Modes of Con¬ 
struction to be varied as to topic, extent, etc., as 
circumstances require. To assist the writer in the 
use of every day words used in letter-writing and in 
the preparation of manuscripts, composition, etc. 

1. Read and spell the sentences orally. 

2. Write the sentences observing (1) penman¬ 
ship, (2) correct spelling, (3) capitalization, (4> 
punctuation. 

3. Indicate the pronunciation by proper diacriti¬ 
cal marks as found in the dictionary. 

4. Write sentences showing or illustrating the 
best use of the words. 

5. In writing a composition decide upon a plan 
owing to the nature of the subject. 

i. man’s life. 

Man’s life involves birth, breath, warmth, care, 
growth, strength, youth, love, mercy, attention, 
direction, the finite, death, etc. With mind we con¬ 
nect brain, thought, sense, school, study, perception, 

Remark : Always consult the dictionary in case of doubt.. 


204 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


reflection, application, memory, consideration, in¬ 
vestigation, wisdom, etc. Schools are known as 
public, common, graded, high, union, select, model, 
normal, parish, commercial, preparatory, primary, 
reformatory, agricultural, scientific, medical, divin¬ 
ity, kindergarten, etc. Do you attend an academy, 
a seminary, a college, a lyceum, a polytechnic, a 
gymnasium, or a university ? Connected with schools 
are the director or trustee, the educator, instructor 
or teacher, the professor, pedagogue, principal, 
preceptor, preceptress, assistant, monitor, monitress, 
etc. Schools use text-books, apparatus, paper, 
eolors, a lexicon or dictionary, a clock, chart, pencil, 
crayon, magnet, blackboard, library, gazetteer, 
cyclopedia,, pens, etc. At intermission and after 
dismission, there are many games ; as, base-ball, 
leap-frog, quoits, croquet, etc. 

Many words apply to, or describe, persons. We 
should be gentle, useful, trusty, civil, polite, urbane, 
discreet, attentive, punctual, industrious, diligent, 
systematic, energetic, persevering, thorough, sensi¬ 
ble, sincere, decided, respectful, abstemious, self- 
denying, affectionate, true-hearted, sympathetic, 
humane, conscientious, moral, and religious. We 
should not be tardy, lazy, fussy, clownish, vulgar, 
giddy, ostentatious, extravagant, uncourteous, un- 
mannered, domineering, meddlesome, quarrelsome, 
morose, saucy, insolent, petulant, irascible, head¬ 
strong, egotistic, conceited, sullen, brutal, rough, 
malicious, malevolent, heartless, cruel, treacherous, 


Manuscripts. 


205- 


savage, base, stingy, mean, parsimonious, dishonest, 
covetous, niggardly, unscrupulous, greedy, glutton¬ 
ous, dissolute, nor profligate. With the mouth we 
can taste, nibble, feast, blame, bicker, brag, titter,, 
giggle, whinney, cackle, babble or prate, gabble,, 
whistle, whisper, whimper, stammer, murmur, wail, 
banter, chat, tattle, prattle, wrangle, argue, debate, 
parley, warble, snicker, gossip, gnarl or snarl, gasp, 
stutter, mutter, chuckle, yell, applaud, teach, preach,, 
recite, cry, rehearse, converse, harangue, pronounce, 
depreciate or disparage, demonstrate, acknowledge,, 
contradict, catechise, thank, pray, etc. If the notori¬ 
ous thief equivocate, corroborate quickly the truth 
of your statement and substantiate fully the charge. 
Discharge the audacious servant, whenever you can 
get a respectful one. A conscientious and affec¬ 
tionate child will obey now, immediately, instantly,, 
not soon, shortly, to-morrow. 

II. SUGGESTIVE FORMS AND MODES ( F 
CONSTRUCTION. 

Religion regards God as the object of obedience,, 
love and worship. It is any system of faith and 
worship; and hence, may be true or false. - God is 
Lord, Jehovah, Omnipotence, Providence, the Al¬ 
mighty, the Eternal, our Father, Maker, Creator, Pre¬ 
server, etc. He is infinite in power, wisdom, good¬ 
ness, justice, truth, mercy, holiness, etc. Jesus was 
called the Christ, the Anointed, the Messiah, the 
Word, Savior, Redeemer, Mediator, Intercessor, 


•206 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Advocate, Judge, Lamb of God, Son of Man, etc. 
The Holy Ghost is known as the Holy Spirit, the 
Paraclete, the Comforter, the Dove, etc. We may 
read of the superhuman, ghostly, spiritual, super¬ 
natural, etc. Angels, archangels, seraphim, and 
cherubim are regarded as beneficent spirits. Satan, 
fallen angels, and devils are called maleficent 
spirits. Jupiter, or Jove, was a mythological su 
preme being; also Odin and Brahma. Certain fab¬ 
ulous powers, as a fay, fairy, and sylph, were re¬ 
garded as good; others, as a fury, harpy, siren, satyr, 
imp, elf, vampire, and goblin, as bad. The myth¬ 
ological heaven was called Olympus; paradise, Ely¬ 
sium ; hell, Tartarus, Hades, Pluto, and Avernus. 

Judaism is the religious doctrines and rites of the 
Hebrews, or Jews; also, conformity to the Jewish 
rites and ceremonies. The ending ism means doc¬ 
trine, sect, or party; as, Romanism, Protestantism, 
Mohammedism, paganism, pantheism, fanaticism, 
polytheism, monotheism, materialism, formalism, 
mysticism, skepticism, etc. Denominations of Chris¬ 
tians are known as Catholic, Episcopal, Lutheran, 
•Calvinist, Methodist, Reformed, Moravian, Unitar¬ 
ian, Trinitarian, Presbyterian, Swedenborgian, Spir¬ 
itualist, Quaker or Friend, Baptist, Universalist, etc. 
We should not be low, mean, base, vile, proud, 
wicked, sinful, haughty, vicious, profane, skeptical, 
profligate, irreverent, impious—a scoffer, scorner, 
mocker, bigot, nor an unbeliever. We should be 
:meek, humble, reverent, faithful, moral, virtuous, 


Manuscripts. 


207 


pious, pure, devout, righteous, and godly. Strive for 
humility, purity, piety, spirituality, sanctity, and 
holiness. TheMishna and Talmud are Jewish books. 
The Yulgate is a Latin version of the Scriptures, 
The Koran is the Mohammedan Bible. Avoid hypoc¬ 
risy, profanity, irreverence, idolatry, and ungodli¬ 
ness. 

III. RECOGNITION OF GOD. 

1. The Supreme Being; author of moral powers; 
Moral Governor and Rewarder of individuals and 
nations. The great example. Author of the State 
and Society. 

THE THREE GREAT MORAL EXERCISES. 

2. Benevolence, the law of good will. 

3. Conscience, duty. 

4. Reverence, regard for the Supreme and the 
superior. 

DUTIES TO SELF. 

5. Integrity, uprightness, preservation of moral 
rectitude in the above principles. 

6. Self-knowledge; self-respect and modesty; 
self-appreciation and self-conceit. 

7. Sanctity of life (plant, animal), especially 
human ; duty of self preservation ; suicide a sin and 
folly. 

8. Physical health and development. 

9. Bodily appetites; exercise and control; tem¬ 
perance; chastity. 


208 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


10. Desires (in general); for knowledge, society, 
esteem, power, superiority. 

11. Affections (in general); love, reverence, grat¬ 
itude, kindness, pity, sympathy. 

12. Governing principles of life; appetites, de¬ 
sires and affections. 

13. Passions; anger, hatred, revenge, ambition, 
envy, jealousy. 

14. Active virtues; faith, energy, enterprise, 
resolution, decision, perseverance, sagacity, wisdom, 
prudence, etc. 

15. Passive virtues; trust, contentment, sub¬ 
mission, meekness, patience, fortitude. 

16. Self-improvement; reading, good company, 
studies, and accomplishments. 

17. Self-development; enlargement, and govern¬ 
ment of mental and moral powers, controlling of 
imagination, self-excitation and discipline, refine 
ment, studies of examples and models. 

18. Government of the tongue ; conversation, its 
value and its rules, courtesy, truth, benevolence; 
profanity, vulgarity, and rudeness ; slang, extrava¬ 
gant speech ; sarcasm, scolding, scurrility, harshness, 
peevishness, scandal, and gossip. 

19. Useful labor. 

20. Industrial virtues ; industry, thrift, economy, 
attention, promptness, diligence, punctuality, order. 

21. Rest and recreation ; periodic weekly rest a 
law of nature, needful for repose, moral instruction, 
family converse, public worship, private meditation. 


Manuscripts. 


209 


The State stands through the rest and moral in¬ 
fluences of this day. 

22 Morals of manners; dress and personal ap¬ 
pearance and personal habits. 

23. Habits of mind and action. 

24. Love of Nature; aesthetics, the sublime and 
beautiful, docility to Nature’s impressions and teach¬ 
ings, docility to science, natural and mental. 

Here we begin to leave “ duties to self,” the first 
outward look being upon Nature. 

25. Kindness to animals. 

DUTIES TO OTHERS. 

26. Philanthropy; beneficence; helpfulness; prac¬ 
tical goodness. 

27. Justice; rights and obligations, persons, prop¬ 
erty, reputation. 

28. The stern virtues; veracity, fidelity; honor, 
courage, firmness, self-Qontrol, indignation. 

29. The lofty virtues; heroism, generosity, sin¬ 
cerity, liberal-mindedness, magnanimity, self-denial, 
devotion to duty and principle. 

30. Honesty in business; acquisitiveness, use and 
abuse ; covetousness ; miserliness; spendthriftness. 

31. Honorable business and occupation. 

32. Reciprocity; employers and employed; labor 
and capital; benefits and gratitudes. 

33. Religions and political liberty and liber¬ 
ality ; strong convictions with moderation and 
charity; dangers of political rancor and religious 


210 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


feuds. Bigotry, superstition. In a free state the 
obligation of forbearance and liberality to other 
religious and political faiths. 

34. The gentle virtues; peaceableness, cheer¬ 
fulness, unselfishness, kindness, sympathy, pity, con¬ 
siderateness, tenderness, care of sick and afflicted. 

35. Treatment of superiors; aged, magistrates, 
teachers. 

36. Treatment of inferiors (so-called); children, 
servants, ignorant, feeble-minded, unfortunate, op¬ 
pressed, criminal. 

37. Friendship. 

38. The morals of love; purity, fidelity, union 
for life. True ideals of love and marriage. 

39. Family virtues ; parental, filial, and fraternal: 
Home. Here duty begins to leave individuals, and 
widen out towards bodies of individuals. 

40. Neighborliness ; concord ; public spirit. 

41. Love of country ; citizenship. 

42. Public service; duties of rulers, magistrates, 
and officials; public trusts, and public money. 

43. Love of mankind; service to humanity; in¬ 
ternational law ; peace on earth. Benefactors of the 
world. 

44. The object of life. 

Suggestion —Have the division and treatment of the 
subjects made and written upon (1) with reference to 
their'practical bearing upon life, (2) as aids to the discus¬ 
sion of morals. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


211 


Criticise, (1) the penmanship, (2) plan, (3) spelling, (4) 
punctuation, (5) use of capitals, (6) general appearance. 

Grade, (1) as to penmanship, (2) as to position, (3) as to 
plan. 

Remark: Assign a subject, outline it and require 10, 25 or 
50 lines to be written correctly as regards (1) Writing, (2) 
Orderly Arrangement, (3) Proper Use of Capitals, (4) Ac¬ 
curacy, (5) Punctuation, (6) Spelling, (7) Spacing, (8) Slant, 
(9) Size, (10) Shade, (11) Style, (12) Precision, (13) Neatness, 
(14) Abbreviation, (15) Parallelism, (16) Alignment, (17) Or¬ 
namentation. [Finally omit outlining leaving the plan to 
the learner’s own taste and judgment.] 


LETTERS, NOTES, DRAFTS, ETC. 

(1) 

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

To whom it may concern : 

The bearer, Mr. F. B. Woodman, is well known to us as 
a man of good moral habits and possessing qualifications 
which will render him serviceable in any position to which 
he may aspire. He is thorough and painstaking. We have 
no hesitancy in recommending him to the public. 

Very respectfully, 

Harry Harrold. 

( 2 ) 

WRITTEN APPLICATION FOR A POSITION. 


To-: 

We hereby present our application to work (teach, 

clerk, etc.) for you at-per month (day, week). As 

to our habits and qualifications we invite your careful 
investigation. Sincerely hoping we may receive due 
consideration, we are 

Yours Very Regardfully, 

John H. Wykoff. 





212 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


St. Louis, Mo., May 1st, 1898. 

Messrs. Chase & Austin, 

New York: 

Gentlemen: — 

As per our agreement of the 25th ult., we ship you this 
day (invoice enclosed), 800 kegs nails and 20,000 lbs. lead, 
to be sold on our joint acct. We leave it entirely at your 
option to push them upon the market, or to await better 
prices. Your reputation and experience afford sufficient 
guarantee that whatever course you may see fit to pursue 
will be the best. 

Very Truly, Yours, 

James Belford & Co. 

( 4 ) 

Columbus, O., June 10th, ’98. 

Logan, Wilson & Co., 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

Gentlemen:— 

We enclose you account sales of nails and lead shipped us 
last month. Your net gain, as shown, is $280.32. We think 
the present a favorable time for this class of sales, and will 
be pleased to join you in any reasonable amount. Let us 
hear from you soon. 

Respectfully, 

George W. Hamilton. 

•(5) 

LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION. 

Troy, O., Aug. 1st, 1898. 

To whom it may concern: 

This is to certify that we are personally acquainted with 
the bearer, L W. Swinton, and know him to be a man of 
good moral character, honest and trustworthy, and compe¬ 
tent to honorably acquit himself in any position to which 
he may aspire. Any favors shown him will not be mis¬ 
placed. 

Very Respectfully, 

Harry Henderson. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 
( 6 ) 


213 


DUE BILL FOR MONEY. 

Columbus, O., June 1st, ’98. 

1100 ^% 

Due Amos Owens, on demand, One Hundred Dollars, 
value received. 

Howard Thomas. 

(7) 

DUE BILL FOR MERCHANDISE. 

Alton, Ill., March 28, ’98. 

P$No 

Due William W. Woodworth, for work done, Seventy- 
five i 5 o 7 o Dollars, payable on demand, in merchandise at my 
store. 

Lemuel Hopkins. 

A Due Bill is a formal written acknowledgment 
that a certain amount is due—cannot properly be 
made payable to order and therefore they are non- 
negotiable. 

LETTER WRITING. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. In writing upon any subject do not strain 
after effect or strive to seem wiser than you are. 

2. Do not write on the fourth page if you ex¬ 
ceed three pages; use another sheet and insert it. 

3. Never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 

4. Spell each word correctly. 

5. Write the door number, the day of the month 
and the year in figures, the rest in words. 


214 


Science anC Art of Penmanship. 


6. Do not omit titles of respect and courtesy : 
let them appear in the address, remembering the 
higher implies the lower and so guard against an 
excessive use of titles. 

7. Let business letters be brief. Repeat noth¬ 
ing, and omit nothing which is needful to say. 

8. Write as you feel; only feel right. 

9. A lady writing to a stranger should prefix 
her title—Miss or Mrs.—to her own name. 

10. In writing always use familiar words and 
place them where they will make your thought the 
clearest. 

11. After finishing a manuscript or theme, double 
the lower half of the sheet over the upper; fold 
through the middle, bring the top down to the 
middle, fold again, turn it to the left and write your 
subject, name and date across the end before hand¬ 
ing it to the teacher or examiner for correction. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write a formal note inviting a friend to a 
social party. 

2. Write a formal note declining an invitation 
to a social party. 

3. Write a letter of five lines to your father, 
mother, brother or sister with proper heading, in¬ 
troduction and conclusion. 

4. Write five superscriptions to real or imagi¬ 
nary acquaintances in as many different cities. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


215 


5. Write two brief letters, one to a friend in 
the location where you live and one to a stranger 
in a foreign city. 

6. Write a letter introducing your friend A. B. 
to the public, or to a firm. 

7. Write a short application for a position as 
clerk at $10 per week in a store. 

8. Write an application for a position as teacher 
in a public school at $2 per day. 

9. Write a promissory note, that may be bought 
and sold, in favor of A. B. for $200 @7%. 

10. Write the names of ten States in abbreviated 
form. 

11. Write a letter to the postmaster in Bismark, 
North Dakota, asking him to forward your mail to 
your present address. 

12. Write twenty lines on “Duties of School 
Mates to Each Other. ” 

13. Write a letter of recommendation. 

To the Teacher.— Continue exercises similar to these, 
or review, write and rewrite the foregoing. Criticise the 
style, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and the me¬ 
chanical execution —the penmanship. 


I. Notes. 


NOTES, DRAFTS, ETC. 

( 1 ) 


$3000.00 Cleveland, O., March 9th, 1898. 

Thirty days after date, for value* received, I promise to 
pay Knapp & Davis, or order, Three Thousand Dollars. 

Robert Hayes. 



216 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


$5000.00 Dayton, O., June 9th, ’98. 

One day after date, I promise to pay to William Moore, 
at the Bank of the Capitol, Five Thousand Dollars, value 
received. 

Millard Tignor. 

(3) 

$500.00 Albany, N. Y., April 10th, 1898. 

Thirty days from date, I promise to pay to the order of 
Everts & Masters, at my office, No. 78 West Spring St., 
Five Hundred Dollars. 

H. P. Armstrong. 

(4) 


$7000.00 Denver, Colo., April 2nd, A. D., 1898. 

Forty days from date, I promise to pay to E. P. Doane, or 
order, Seven Thousand Dollars, value received. 

Warren Spencer. 

(5) 

$840.50. Chicago, Ill., March 18th, ’98. 

Ninety days from date, we promise to pay Daniel Drew, 
or order, Eight Hundred Forty and Hollars, value 
received. 

James Logan. 
John Wilson. 

II. Drafts. 

(i) 


$4136 t 2 o 5 o Indianapolis, Ind , Jan. 6th, 1898. 

At thirty days sight, pay to the order of Geo. K. Chase 8c 
Co., Forty-one Hundred Thirty-six x 2 <fo Dollars, value re¬ 
ceived, and charge to account of 


To Niles & Kinne, New York. 


Logan, Wilson 8c Co. 


( 2 ) 

$390.00 Washington, D. C., March 8th, 1898. 

At ten days sight pay to G. A. Zimmerman, or order* 
Three Hundred and Ninety Dollars, and charge to account of 

Richard Roe 8c Co. 


To Fleming , Sons & Co ., New York. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


217 


(3) 

$2881.00 Philadelphia, Pa., Apr. 20th, ’96. 

To Manning & Fisher, New York : 

At thirty days sight pay to B. L. Longfellow, or order, 
Twenty-eight Hundred Eighty-one Dollars, value received, 
and charge to my account. 

J. P. Hamilton. 

A Note originates with the payer, and is a volun¬ 
tary promise to pay. 

A Draft originates with the person on whose ac¬ 
count it is to be made, being in the form of a request . 

The two forms of u Negotiable Paper, ” then, are 
notes and drafts, differing in form but precisely 
similar in their legal effect and value. 

Days of Grace, the time allowed by law between 
the written date of maturity of a note or draft, and 
the date upon which it must be paid. It is usually 
three days. 

Payee, the person is whose favor the draft or bill 
of exchange is drawn. 

Drawee, the person on whom a draft is drawn. 

Drawer, the person who draws a draft. 

Endorsement, one’s name written on the back of 
a note by which he becomes liable for its payment. 

The acceptance is the agreement by the drawee 
to pay it when due, by writing the word “accepted ” 
with his name, across the face of the draft or bill of 
exchange. 

N. B. “Days of Grace” are no longer allowed in Ohio 
and some other states. 


218 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


A Negotiable note is one that can be bought and 
sold. 

The words u or order,” or “ or bearer,” make the 
note negotiable; if u or order,” be used it must be 
endorsed; if u or bearer” be used, the note may be 
bought and sold without any endorsement. 

Partial Payment. The receipt of a partial pay¬ 
ment is acknowledged by writing the date and the 
amount of the payment on the back of the note. 
This is the endorsement. 

Maturity, the date when a note or draft falls due. 

Note, a written obligation to pay money or goods. 

Invoice, a bill of goods bought or sold. 

Liability, a debt or claim against a person. 

Assets, available means; resources of any kind. 

Balance of Trade, the ditference between the 
value of imports and exports. 

Exchange, the species of paper by which debts 
are paid without the transmission of money; i. e., 
a written order from one person to another to pay 
a certain sum of money 

Board of Trade, an association of business men, 
for the general advancement of commercial interests. 

Note to Teacher: 

To further aid him in acquiring a more acceptable hand¬ 
writing a knowledge of business forms, business methods 
and of book-keeping principles may be taken up, and the 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


219 


pupil be made more familiar with the nature, form and use 
of business papers used in ordinary mercantile transactions 
by bringing to bear available helps on business training 
and book-keeping as the necessities of the case may seem 
to require, considering the age and aptness of the learner. 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a letter ? 

2. What is a theme ? 

8. What is a composition ? 

4. What is an essay ? 

5. What is an argumentative essay ? 

6. What is a didactic essay? 

7. What is a scientific essay ? 

8. What is direct discourse? 

9. What is indirect discourse ? 

10. What is a direct question ? 

11. What is an indirect question? 

12. What is narration? 

18. What is a proposition ? 

14. What is a quotation ? 

15. What is the meaning of anonymous ! 

16. What is a Nom de 'plume ? 

17. What is an autograph ? 

18. What is a monograph ? 

19. What is a monogram ? 

20. What is calligraphy ? 

21. What is chirography? 

22. What is a brochure ? 

23. What is a billet? 

24. What is a billet doux ? 


220 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

25. What is a postscript ? . 

. 26. What is an appendix ? 

27. What is a seal ? 

28. What is meant by epistolography ? 

29. What are the divisions of a letter ? 

30. Name the parts of a letter. 

31. What is the heading ? 

32. What is the address ? 

33. What is the salutation ? 

34. What is the body? 

35. What is the complimentary closing? 

36. What is the signature ? 

37. .What is the superscription? 

38. Write in proper order a short letter of half a 
•dozen lines. 

39. What does the nature of the salutation de¬ 
pend upon ? 

40. What does the nature of the conclusion de¬ 
pend upon? 

41. Give three appropriate forms of superscrip¬ 
tion as it should appear on the envelope. 

42. Is a note of invitation inclosed in another 
envelope? Is it ever stamped and sent alone ? No. 

43. Give the form of the proper address on an 
envelope enclosing a note of invitation. 

44. Give the form of address for an unmarried 
Jady. 

45. Give two forms of address for a married lady. 

46. Give two forms of address for a gentleman. 

47. Give two forms of address for a physician. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


221 


48. Give two forms of address for a dentist. 

49. Give two forms of address for a business firm. 

50. Give one form of address for an eminent 
instructor. 

51. Give three forms of address for a clergyman. 
Explain. 

52. How is the head of a department of govern¬ 
ment, a member of Congress, a judge, or the mayor 
of a city addressed ? 

53. How is the President of the U. S. addressed ? 

54. How is the Governor of a state addressed ? 

65. What are paragraphs ? 

50. What is the marginal line ? 

57. What is the paragraph line ? 

58. Outline a letter describing a trip, etc. 

59. Write a note of invitation. 

60. Write a reply accepting an invitation. 

61. Write a reply declining an invitation. 

62. Give some general directions always to be 
observed in letter-writing. 

63. In writing a theme or composition what 
should determine the plan ? 

64. Name the three u Great Moral Exercises.” 

65. Write ten lines or more on each. 

66. Write ten lines or more on “ Duties to Self.” 

67. Write ten lines or more on “ Self-Develop^ 
ment.” 

68. Write ten lines or more on “Duties to 
Others,” etc. 


222 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


69. Choose your subject, outline it, and write 
forty lines correctly as regards (1) writing, (2) or¬ 
derly arrangement, (3) proper use of capitals, (4) 
accuracy, (5) punctuation, (6) spelling, (7) spacing, 
(8) slant, (9) size, (10) shade, (11) style, (12) pre¬ 
cision, (13) neatness, (14) abbreviations, (16) par¬ 
allelism, (16) alignment, (17) ornamentation. 

70. Write a short letter of introduction. 

71. Write an application for a position. 

72. Write a letter of recommendation. 

73. Write a due bill for money. 

74. Write a due bill for merchandise. 

75. Are due bills negotiable ? 

76. Write a promissory note. 

77. Discuss differeut forms of promissory notes. 

78. What is a note ? 

79. What is a draft ? 

80. What are the two forms of negotiable paper ? 

81. What are Days of Grace ?” 

82. Who is the payee ? 

83. Who is the drawee ? 

84. Who is the drawer ? 

85. What is an endorsement ? 

86. What is an acceptance? 

87. What is a negotiable note ? 

88. What words make a note negotiable ? 

89. What is a partial payment? 

90. Define ‘‘ note ” and u maturity.” 

91. Define invoice, liabilities and assets. 

92. Define exchange. 


Letters, Notes, Drafts, Etc. 


223 


93. What is meant by balance of trade ? 

94. What is a board of trade? Its object? 

95. Repeat ten cautions on letter writing and 
manuscript. 

96. Review the “ Exercises.” 



224 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


chapter XI. 


I. Definitions. 


2. Aleoholism 


3. Opium. 

(Morphinism). 


4. Chloral. 

(Chloralism) 


NARCOTICS. 


1. Brain. 

2. Cord. 

3. Nerves ... 

4. Stomach. 

5. Heart. 


f 1. Moral Sense. 
| 2. The Will. 

3. Intellect. 

4. Motion. 

5. Sight. 


6. Blood and Circulatory System. 

7. Liver. 

8. Lungs. 

9. Kidneys. 

10. Spleen. 

11. Dropsy. 


\ 1. Skin. 

| 2. Countenance. 

3. Eye. 

4. Heart. 

5. Alimentary Canal. 

6. Nervous System in General. 

f 1. The Nervous System, 
j 2. Digestive System. 

| 3. Heart and Circulation. 

I. 4. Skin. 


5. Paraldehyde. 

6. Cannabis Indica. 

7. Cocaine. 

8. Bromides. 

9. Tobacco. 

I 0. Chloroform. 

I I. Ether. 


I 2. Comparisons. 


1. Chloralism and Morphinism. 

2. Chloroform and Ether. 


I 3. The Origin or Source of Narcotics. 










Narcotics. 


225 


CHAPTER XI. 


NARCOTICS. 

Narcotics are drugs which lessen the relationship 
of the individual to the external world. 

Hypnotics are narcotics which produce sleep 
without causing any preliminary cerebral excite¬ 
ment. Ex. Paraldehyde and Bromides. 

Anodynes or Analgesics are narcotics which relieve 
pain either by impairing the conducticity of the 
sensory nerves, or by depressing the cerebral centers 
of sensation and perception. Ex. Opium, and its 
alkaloids Morphine and Codeine. 

Note to Teachers : The nature and effects of nar¬ 
cotics should be discussed in the study of Penmanship, in 
a special manner, for the following reasons : 

The uses and abuses of Narcotics may give rise to disorders 
of motion such as complete or incomplete loss of muscular 
power, tremor affecting the hands and arms rendering the 
person awkward and uncertain in movement, the extensor 
muscles may become paretic or paralyzed, the muscles of 
the eye become involved and disturbed vision occur. The 
inevitable result of alcoholism is Incoordination. 

Disorders of General /Sensibility as of cramps, discomfort, 
malaise, etc., is prone to occur, the will-power is gradually 
lost and indifference becomes marked, judgment becomes 
uncertain and the association of ideas inexact. The great 
aim is to keep the nervous system in first-class, normal con- 
dition—a thing impossible if the uses of narcotics be abused. 



226 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


Anaesthetics are narcotics which temporarily de¬ 
stroy sensation. Ex. General Anaesthetics — Ether, 
Chloroform and Nitrous Oxide. Local Anaesthetics 
—Ether Spray or Methyl Chloride, Cocaine, Ice, or 
Extreme Cold. 

Stimulant is a term used to designate the action 
of any agent which increases the organic activity of 
any part of the organism. Alcoholic preparations 
are usually called a stimulants,” although their 
action is really that of a true narcotic. 

Sedatives are narcotics which lessen the func¬ 
tional activity of organs, lower motility, diminish 
pain and so exert a soothing influence on the sys¬ 
tem. Ex. Chloral, Opium in small doses, Bromides, 
etc. 

Deliriants are narcotics which excite the func¬ 
tional activity of the higher brain to such an extent 
as to disorder the mentai faculties, and produce in¬ 
tellectual confusion, loss of will power, delirium, 
and even convulsions. Ex. Alcohol (full doses), 
Cannabis Indica, and others owing to the amounts 
taken. 

Cerebral-Depressants are narcotics wlpch lower 
or entirely suspend the functions of the higher brain 
after a preliminary stage of excitement. Ex. Alco¬ 
hol (large doses), Opium, Chloroform, Bromides, 
Chloral. 

Motor Depressants are narcotics which lower the 
functional activity of the spinal cord and motor ap- 


Narcotics. 


227 


paratus—(movements of any kind), and in large 
doses , paralyze them directly. Ex. Alcohol, Opium, 
Ether, Chloroform, Chloral and Tobacco. 

THE ACTIONS AND EFFECTS OF NARCOTICS. 

How are the Actions and Effects of narcotics 
brought about ? 

By the same processes that medicines act or foods 
feed, viz: 

By their breaking up into ultimate elements 
kinetic energy is evolved from the potential energy 
previously locked up in the drug, and the force so 
released acts upon the structures of the body bring¬ 
ing about certain changes in vital operations which 
favorably or unfavorably influence the life-forces of 
the individual. 

I. ALCOHOLISM. 

Alcoholism consists in the changes produced in 
the various viscera by the habitual indulgence in 
alcohol. 

1. The Brain. The ultimate lesions of the brain 
are not yet fully known; but most commonly it is 
found to be throughout or in certain parts atrophied 
or shrivelled, its convolutions flattened and its sur¬ 
face retracted. This may sometimes be due to the 
pressure of collections of hemorrhagic or inflamma¬ 
tory products, and the occurrence of patches of 
sclerosis or hyperplasia of the connective tissue. 
Softening of the brain from Alcoholism is usually 
the result of thrombosis. The dura mater becomes 


228 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


thickened and the arachnoid opaque. The walls of 
the cerebral blood vessels become fatty or ather¬ 
omatous. 

2. The Spinal Cord. The same changes may 
occur in the Cord as in the brain producing the 
symptoms of Sclerosis with characteristic and pain¬ 
ful spots along the spine. 

3. The Nerves extending from the brain and 
cord may themselves suffer since multiple neuritis is 
sometimes seen as a result of Alcoholism. 

Disorders of Moral Sense is among the early 
phenomena. He who was once punctilious, consid¬ 
erate, and thoughtful, becomes negligent, selfish, 
and indifferent to sentiments of honor and emula¬ 
tion. Prone to acts of sudden violence he becomes 
excitable, perverse, or gloomy, taciturn and pre¬ 
occupied. 

The Will. The subject of Alcoholism, very often, 
scarcely knows his own mind. Especially does he 
lack the power to say No. Vacillation, indecision, 
and dependence upon others become characteristic 
traits. Will-power becomes destroyed. 

Disorders of Motion. These consist of tremor, 
sub sultus, spasm, muscular paresis and palsies. 
Voluntary movement intensifies the tremor. Alco¬ 
holic tremor affects the hands and arms, renders the 
person awkward and interferes with his ability to 
write or work. Little by little a complete loss of 
muscular power results. Paralysis attacks especially 


Narcotics. 


229 


the extensor muscles. The eye muscles may be¬ 
come affected. In short, incoordination is the inev¬ 
itable result of Alcoholism. 

Disorders of Sight. These are among the earliest 
and most marked symptoms. Objects appear as if 
seen through a fog and phosphenes, scintillations 
and streams of light, etc., are complained of. It is 
one of the causes of color-blindness or Daltonism. 
Atrophy of the optic nerve occurs as a direct result 
of Alcoholism. Conjunctivitis, Iritis, Ulcerations of 
the Cornea, etc., occur. 

Disordered Intellect. Loss of intellectual power 
comes last, and consists in diminution of vivacity 
and readiness. Apathy and indifference is marked, 
and the power of argument, reasoning and judgment 
is uncertain and the association of ideas are inexact. 
At length intellectual degradation unfits the subject 
for the ordinary relations of life. 

4. The Stomach. It congests the stomach, over¬ 
stimulates the gastric glands, and causes acute gas¬ 
tritis or catarrhal inflammation and if continued in 
large doses it precipitates the pepsin and destroys 
its activity as a ferment and arrests digestion, causes 
acid fermentation, and acid eructations associated 
with which is loss of appetite, b'ttle or no digestion, 
sallowness, mental depression and headache. 

5. The Heart. (1) In Small Doses , it briefly 
stimulates the heart prolonging its systole and re¬ 
ducing the length of its diastole. (2) In Large Doses , 


230 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


it depresses the heart and lowers the arterial ten¬ 
sion. (3) In Toxic Doses , it produces muscular 
resolution and death occurs by paralysis of the heart. 

6. The Blood and Circulatory System. It pro 

duces fatty degeneration of the blood and walls of 
arteries and various organs. It acts directly upon 
the water of the blood and upon its albuminoid prin¬ 
ciples. The corpuscles of alcoholized animals have 
been found relatively large in accord with the fact 
that the product of the reactions normally taking 
place within the corpuscles, pass with greater diffi¬ 
culty into serum containing alcohol as the current of 
osmosis tends rather from the serum to the cor¬ 
puscles. 

An unusual amount of fatty matter in a state of 
fine sub-division has frequently been found in the 
blood of individuals who have died in a state of al¬ 
coholic intoxication. 

Dilatation of the capillaries and an increased 
afflux of blood manifest themselves in the flushed 
face, brilliant eyes, and warmth of surface which are 
familiar phenomena, and frequent repetition tends 
to permanently impair the activity of the peripheral 
circulation, giving rise to the vascular twigs and ru¬ 
bicund nose of the habitual drinker. 

Alcohol having entered the blood reaches all the 
organs of the body, and has been recovered by dis¬ 
tillation not only from the blood itself, but also 
from the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and various 


Narcotics. 


231 


secretions. Capillary aneurisms and extravasated 
blood in circumscribed collections, and finally ca¬ 
pillary hemorrhages may occur. 

7. The Liver. It produces congestion of the 
liver, overstimulates the hepatic cells to the produc¬ 
tion of pathological secretions. The liver gradually 
becomes indurated, the fibrous tissue increases, pro¬ 
ducing hob-nail liver or cirrhosis. 

8. The Lungs. It lowers their resistance power 
to morbific influences, and a low grade of inflamma¬ 
tion, resulting in hyperplasia of the connective tissue, 
may be developed, causing chronic catarrhal pneu¬ 
monia or fibroid phthisis. Chronic pleurisy is also 
often seen. 

9 and 10. The Kidneys and Spleen undergo 
changes similar to those seen in the liver, and give 
rise (1) To Cirrhosis or “ Gouty Kidney,” “ Chronic 
Bright’s Disease” of the Kidney and “Renal 
Hypersemia.” . (2) “ Splenic Hvperaemia,” “Acute 
Splenitis,” and “Splenic Abscess.” 

II. Dropsy. Alcoholism leads directly to pro¬ 
ducing six of the eight conditions which produce 
dropsy in the human system, viz: (1) Diseases of 
the Heart. (2) Diseases of the Liver. (3) Diseases 
of the Kidneys. (4) Diseases of the Lungs. (5) Dis¬ 
eases of the Spleen. (6) Diseases of the Intestinal 
Glands. 

THE OPIUM HABIT OR MORPHINISM, CHLORALISM, ETC. 

Next to alcohol, opium and morphine are habit¬ 
ually used and abused to a greater extent than any 


232 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


other narcotic. And instances of it, we are sorry to 
say, are frequently encountered in all classes and 
particularly among people of means and refinement. 

Chloral, paraldehyde, cannabis (hemp), ether, 
chloroform, and cocaine, etc., are also used to a less 
extent. 

II. OPIUM AND ITS ALKALOIDS. 

GENERAL consideration. 

1. The Skin becomes relaxed, inelastic, and dull. 

2. The Countenance becomes cyanotic and 
muddy in appearance, and most frequently furtive 
and timid. 

3. The Eye. Diminished power of accommoda¬ 
tion takes place and the pupils are commonly con¬ 
tracted or unequal, and usually very eager and 
bright. -There is persistent anaemia of the retina. 

4. The Heart. It is often irregular, and weak. 
The pulsation at the wrist variable and the vaso¬ 
motor disturbances give rise to flushing of the face 
and irregular sensations of heat over the body. Pal¬ 
pitations with praecordial distress is common. 

5. On the Alimentary Canal. It has two chief 
actions, (1) irritation of the mucous membrane, 
(2) diminution of paristalsis. 

6. The Nervous System in General. Trembling 
of the hands and of the tongue occurs resembling 
alcoholic tremor. Painful spots along the spine and 


Narcotics. 


233 


various kinds of neuralgias, especially supra-orbital, 
intercostal and prsecordial. Sleep comes late, irreg¬ 
ular and unrefreshing. There is giddiness or vertigo. 
Appetite and general nutrition fail; emaciation is 
often marked, rapid, and sometimes extreme. 

In man, the action of opium and its alkaloids, 
morphine and codeine is chiefly manifested upon 
the brain. The functions of the nervous system are 
abolished in the order of their development, the 
highest centers being the first affected. 

III. CHLORAL HYDRATE. 

The consumption of chloral as a narcotic has 
reached an extent in certain classes of society which 
raises it, after alcohol and opium, to the third place 
among such agents. It is a powerful hypnotic. 

1. The Nervous System. The nervous system 
bears the blunt of the disturbance as shown by con¬ 
fusion of thought, inability to converse or to write. 
Formication of the surface of the body, encircling 
bands of pain above the wrists and ankles, co-ordi¬ 
nating power impaired ; has great trouble in writing, 
buttoning his coat, etc. The mental state is charac¬ 
terized by dullness, apathy, confusion and un¬ 
certainty. 

2, The Digestive System. The derangements of 
the digestive system are; (1) Primary, the direct 
irritant action of the drug upon the nervous tissues 
of the mouth and stomach resulting in gastro-duo- 


234 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


denal catarrh. (2) Secondary,, its effects upon the 
nervous centers in the walls of the stomach and in¬ 
testine and the nerve centers in general. 

3. The Heart and Circulation. It weakens and 
finally paralyzes the vaso-motor center and thus di¬ 
lates the blood-vessels, and at the same time the 
heart action weakens and becomes intermittent, ir¬ 
regular, and palpitation occurs. The composition 
of the blood is changed as shown by petechise,. 
sponginess of the gums, and serous effusions. 

4. The Skin. The skin undergoes nutritive 
changes of a marked kind—chronic congestion of 
the face, neck and ears is often very striking. And 
erythematous, nrticarious, papular, vesicular, and 
pustular eruptions often occur. 

Chloralism and morphinism alike produce the 
following derangements : Intellectual enfeeble- 
ment, inability to concentrate the mind, habitual 
timidity, and impairment of memory. In the worst 
cases—hallucinations, delusions, and delirium oc¬ 
cur, acute mania may occur, and dementia consti¬ 
tutes a terminal state. 

IV. PARALDEHYDE. 

Paraldehyde is a hypnotic about one-half the 
power of chloral. In large doses it paralyzes the 
heart and respiration. It may give rise to cerebral 
congestion and vaso-motor paralysis if used for any 
long period,’and, like chloral, causes an erythema¬ 
tous eruption of the skin. 


Narcotics. 


235 


Y. CANNABIS (iNDICA). 

Cannabis Indica, if used to excess like the other 
narcotic, produces intellectual confusion. The pe¬ 
culiar action of this drug is, because of the ideas 
following each other so rapidly, as if minutes were 
as long in duration as hours or even days. And 
sensations of double consciousness and enormous 
dimensions are experienced. 

VI. COCAINE. 

Cocaine produces incoordination of movement. 
Owing to the size of the dose hallucinations and de¬ 
lirium occur. It stimulates the brain by increasing 
its blood supply and this increased blood supply 
may lead to capillary aneurisms and patches of ex- 
travasated blood and if any weakness exists in the 
arterial walls even though caused from some other 
disease, hemorrhage may occur. 

It dilates the pupil of the eye by stimulation of 
the sympathetic nerve in the iris. It diminishes the 
sense of hunger and fatigue. In Lethal Doses it 
paralyzes the intra cardiac motor ganglia, and the 
posterior columns of the cord and sensory nerves, 
and the respiratory center. Cocaine is also a local 
anaesthetic. 

VII. BROMIDES. 

“Bromism” is understood to mean the general 
result of their action and is believed to be due to 


236 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


the sedative influence of the bromides on the sym¬ 
pathetic system, causing general ansemia of the 
brain, spinal column and skin. 

Their actions may be briefly summed up as follows: 
They are decomposed in the blood and reformed at 
the points of elimination and thus cause irritation of 
the mucous surfaces of the fauces, bronchi, intestines, 
skin and kidneys. Continued for some time they pro¬ 
duce severe gastric catarrah. They reduce the num¬ 
ber of respirations, and the action and force of the 
heart. They lower arterial tension, and lessen the 
activity of the brain cells producing somnolence. 
They cause anaesthesia of the skin and mucous mem¬ 
branes by diminishing the sensibility of the pe¬ 
ripheral nerves. Owing to their abuse they impair 
motility, cause pallor and emaciation, lower the body 
temperature, and bring about defective co-ordination 
destroying pen-prehension and poising, and if their 
use be long continued may impair the mental facul¬ 
ties, in some cases producing melancholia with sui¬ 
cidal intent, and in other cases hallucinations, etc. 
Paralysis when it occurs begins at the periphery and 
extends to the centers. They are pre-eminently de¬ 
pressants of the cerebral and spinal functions. They 
are hypnotic narcotics. The difference in action be¬ 
tween the potassium, sodium, ammonium, lithium, 
calcium, zinc and ferrous bromides will not be dis¬ 
cussed in this chapter. 


Narcotics. 


237 


VIII. TABACUM-TOBACCO. 

Smoking or Chewing. The continued use by 
smoking or chewing to excess produces granular in¬ 
flammation of the fauces, and pharynx, atrophy of 
the retina, dyspepsia, nervous depression, heart ir¬ 
ritability, sudden faints, and occasionally angina 
pectoris. If used by the young it hinders the de¬ 
velopment of the higher nerve centres by impairing 
the nutrition of the body, and by interference 
with the processes of digestion and assimilation. It 
produces increased salivary and intestinal secretion, 
and tremor. From lethal doses or sudden and exces¬ 
sive use there results a cold and clammy skin, col¬ 
lapse, and death usually results by paralysis of the 
respiration or the heart. Tobacco contains a power¬ 
ful liquid alkaloid Nicotine. Empyreumatic products, 
are results of its combustion. They are Pyridine and 
Collidin. Tobacco-smoke contains little or no Nico¬ 
tine ; in that from pipes Pyridine preponderates, in 
that from cigars Collidin, which is much less active. 
Death has occurred from a toxic dose of pure Nico¬ 
tine in three minutes with no symptoms save a wild 
stare and a deep sigh. Tobacco is to be classed as 
a sedative narcotic. 

(IX. AND X.) CHLOROFORM AND ETHER. 

Chloroform is more prompt in action and more 
dangerous than ether. Both act similar to alcohol 
on the Gerebrum and the motor and sensory nerves 


238 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


but more prompt and less protracted. They are 
anaesthetic narcotics. When swallowed they both 
produce violent gastro-enteritis from irritation of 
the mucous membranes. Chloroform inhaled is much 
more dangerous than ether inhaled, because death 
from the inhalation of chloroform is nearly always 
sudden and by paralysis of the heart,— from Ether 
it is slow and usually by paralysis of the lungs. 
Anaesthesia by inhalation is divided into three stages 

(1) the stage of excitement (cerebral intoxication), 

(2) the convulsive stage, (3) complete insensibility. 
The main use of chloroform and ether is to tempo¬ 
rarily destroy sensation for the purpose of operation. 

Health. In health there is no benefit to be de¬ 
rived from the use of alcohol or other narcotics. In 
•certain diseased conditions they are of undoubted 
value. 

ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPAL NARCOTICS. 

1. Alcohol. —Common Alcohol or Ethyl Alcohol 
(O f HgOH) is prepared from saccharine liquids by 
the growth of a microscopic plant called yeast, or 
ferment. The process is called fermentation. The 
yeast plant is called Torula or Micoderma cerevisise. 

2. Opium. The concrete, milky exudation ob¬ 
tained in Asia Minor by incising the unripe capsules 
of the White Poppy. It contains seventeen alka¬ 
loids, two neutral bodies and two organic acids, be¬ 
sides wax, gum, resin, sugar, odorous principles, etc. 
Morphine is the chief alkaloid of opium. 


Narcotics. 


239 


3. Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine 
into absolute alcohol until saturated, and then add¬ 
ing sulphuric acid and distilling off the chloral. 

4. Paraldehyde is prepared by the action of sul¬ 
phuric acid or nitric acid on aldehyde. Aldehydes 
are formed in the first stage of the oxidation of alco¬ 
hols and are intermediate between alcohols and 
acids. They are alcohols less two atoms of hydrogen. 

5. Cannabis is obtained from the flowering tops 
of Cannabis Indica in India, or from Cannabis Amer¬ 
icana in America. It is called u Hemp,’’ but it is not 
the u Indian Hemp” which is altogether a different 
plant. 

6. Cocaine was discovered by Neimannin 1859. 
It is a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the leaves 
of Erythroxylon Coca, a small Peruvian shrub. [Do 
not confound coca with cocoa which is prepared 
from the seeds of the chocolate tree.] 

7. Ether is prepared by distilling ethylic alco¬ 
hol with sulphuric acid, by heating the mixture and 
distilling over the resulting ether. 

8. Chloroform is prepared by the action of 
chlorinated lime upon alcohol. It was discovered 
in 1831 by Samuel Guthrie of Sackett’s Harbor, N. Y. 
Also by Soubeiran and Liebig, in the same year. 

9. Bromides are obtained usually from the 
alkaline metals as the Bromide of Potash, Bromide 
•of Soda, etc. 


240 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


10. Tobacco is obtained from the dried leaves of 
Nicotiana Tabacum, a native of tropical America. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write ten lines on u How do Narcotics Act ?” 

2. Write ten, lines on u How does the abuse of 
Alcohol affect the Brain ? ”, 

3. Write ten lines on “How does the abuse of 
Alcohol affect the Will ? ” (1) “ How affect sight ? n 
(2) u How affect intellect?” 

4. Write on u How does Alcohol affect the Nerv¬ 
ous System ? ” 

5. Write fifteen or twenty lines on u How does 
Morphine affect the Nervous System in General?” 

6. Write fifteen lines on u How does Chloralism 
affect the Nerves?” 

7. Write ten lines on u Cannabis.” 

8. Write ten lines on Cocaine.” 

9. Write twenty lines on u Bromides.” 

10. Write fifteen lines on Tobacco.” 

11. Write ten lines on The Aciions and Effects 
of Chloroform and Ether.” 

12. Write twenty lines or more on u The Origin 
of the Principal Narcotics.” ' 

To the Teacher. — After this everything must pass rigid 
muster, let critical analysis be expected in review and do 
not fail to meet the expectations of the applicant. 


Narcotics. 


241 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 

1. Define narcotics. 

2. What are hypnotics ? 

3. What are anodynes? 

4. What are anaesthetics? Kinds? 

5. What are stimulants? 

6. What are sedatives? 

7. What are deliriants? 

8. What are cerebral-depressants ? 

9. What are motor-depressants ? 

10. How do narcotics act? 

11. What is alcoholism ? 

12. How does alcohol affect the brain ? 

13. How does alcohol affect the spinal cord ? 

14. How does alcohol affect the cerebral vessels ? 

15. How does alcohol affect the nerves ? 

16. Discuss the disorders of moral sense. 

17. Discuss the disorders of will power. 

18. Discuss the disorders of motion. 

19. Discuss the disorders of sight. 

20. Discuss the disorders of intellect. 

21. How does alcoholism affect the stomach? 

22. How does alcoholism affect the heart ? 

23. How does alcoholism affect blood vessels ? 

24. How does alcoholism affect the blood ? 

25. How does alcoholism affect the liver? 

26. How does alcoholism affect the kidneys and 
spleen ? 


242 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


27. Name the six conditions by which alcoholism 
produces dropsy. 

28. Which narcotic is abused most? Alcohol. 
Which next? Opium and morphine. Which third? 
Chloral. 

29. Give the effect of opium and its alkaloids on 
(1) the skin, (2) the countenance, (8) the eye. 

30. How does morphinism affect the heart ? 

31. The alimentary canal? 

32. In what order are the functions of the nerv¬ 
ous system abolished? 

33. Give the effects on the nervous system in 
general. 

34. Give the effects of chloralism on the nervous 
system. (35) On digestion, (36) on the heart and 
circulation, (37) on the skin. 

38. Compare chloralism and morphinism. 

39. Discuss the action of paraldehyde. 

40. Discuss the action of cannabis. 

41. Discuss the action of cocaine. 

42. Discuss the action of bromides. 

43. What is u Bromism ” 

44. Name six bromides. 

45. Discuss the action of tobacco. 

46. Name the liquid alkaloid of tobacco. 

47 What are empyreumatic products? 

48. Does tobacco smoke contain nicotine ? Ans 
It is thought not. 

49. Name two empyreumatic products of tobacco. 
Where found ? 


Narcotics. 


243 


50. Is the alkaloid nicotine a deadly poison? 
What is the shortest time recorded in which it has 
produced death? 

51. To what class of narcotics does tobacco be¬ 
long? 

52. Compare chloroform and ether as to their 
action. 

53. Give the stages of anaesthesia by inhalation. 

54. Is there any benefit whatever to be derived 
from the use of narcotics by a healthy person ? 

55. Give the origin or source of the following 
narcotics : (1) alcohol, (2) opium and morphine, (3) 
chloral, (4) paraldehyde, (5) cannabis, (6) cocaine, 
(7) ether, (8) chloroform, (9) bromides, (10) tobacco. 


244 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

1. What is meant by the u Writing Instru¬ 
ments ?” 

-The hand and arm from the shoulder center. 

2. What is “ Wrist Rolling? ” 

-Rolling the hand and wrist too far either out¬ 
ward or inward. 

3. What are the u Gymnastics” of writing?” 

-Movement exercises. 

4. What are u Pen Pinchers ? ” 

-Persons who pinch the pen. This should be 

corrected by using a large pen holder. 

5. When should pupils begin combinations ? 

-When they have learned to write a fairly 

good hand. 

6. What style of writing in general should be 
preferred ? 

-That which is easiest now and promises to be 

the easiest in after years and which will facilitate 
business. Slant writing seems to promise most for 
the future. 

7. Can a pupil become a good penman who is 
a poor speller? 

-No, because it interferes with attention to 

form and causes hesitation in speed. 

8. What is absolutely necessary for a person 
who would learn a good handwriting? 








Miscellaneous Exercises. 


245 


-To be an able critic and to practice much on 

the style of writing he prefers. 

9. For the most part how is good form attained ? 

-Mainly by individual effort. Let every im¬ 
pediment to free action be done away with and use 
plenty of free movement drill. 

10. To obtain the greatest amount of freedom 
how must the hand move ? 

-As a unit. 

11. What is meant by the “Muscular Move¬ 
ment ? ” 

-That in which there is no finger movement, 

the hand being propelled back and forth laterly 
from the cushion of muscles below the elbow. 

12. Which are termed “variable lines” in pen¬ 
manship ? 

-j— The final and connecting lines because they 
depend upon the combination. 

13. What is produced by “direct” and “in¬ 
verse” loop movement? 

-Upper and lower loops. 

14. Which are the more teachable, standard cap¬ 
itals or current styles? 

-Standard capitals, although “ muscular move¬ 
ment ” seems best adapted to current styles. 

15. What is meant by “ Main Slant ? ” 

-Usually a slant of fifty-two degrees. It may 

vary however between fifty-two and thirty-seven 
degrees or even more owing to the style of hand¬ 
writing. 


246 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


16. How many different kinds of movements 
may be employed, in writing ? 

-Primary and Secondary, or Whole Arm and 

Finger with their various combinations. 

The Whole Arm movement resting on the belly 
of the flexor muscles below the elbow is to be pre 
ferred. [This movement is referred to by penmen 
as “ muscular. ” “ forearm, ” “ combined,” etc.] 

17. What general rule must be remembered in 
making figures ? 

-Make them so plain that one can not be mis¬ 
taken for another. They should never be doubtful. 

18. Upon what does uniform spacing chiefly 
depend ? 

-Upon position and uniform movement. 

19. What is meant by u Business Writers’ Move¬ 
ment ?'” 

-Muscular movement, [Explained in No. 16.] 

20. What is meant by the “ Off Hand Move¬ 
ment?” 

-The arm swinging clear from the shoulder 

with possibly the third and fourth fingers touching 
the paper. 

21. What is meant by “Vibratory Movement:” 
also by “ Projective Movement ? ” 

-Whole Arm movement resting upon the 

muscles below the elbow. It is commonly called 
“Fore Arm Movement” or “Muscular Movement.” 

22. Is.writing a “Mechanical Performance?” 


Miscellaneous Exercises. 


247 


-No, not purely so, because the anatomy and 

physiology of the writing instrument and a thor¬ 
ough knowledge of the underlying principles ot 
form and movement are essential in the execution 
or performance. 

23. How should pens be selected? 

-Owing to the kind of writing to be done. 

The pen, as a rule, should have a smooth even point 
neither too sharp nor too blunt. 

24. What is your method of conducting a recita¬ 
tion in writing? 

-By drilling on appropriate movement exer¬ 
cises and applying the same in letters, forms, words 
and sentences. [Methods will vary owing to the 
grade. A plan must be decided upon. Let “Sys¬ 
tem ” be the watchword.] 

25. How would you overcome some of the com¬ 
mon faults in executing small and capital letters? 

-By duly considering movement drills in re¬ 
lation to the form of letters and by grouping for 
practice on a basis of resemblances and differences. 

26. How should type written copies be prepared? 

_With reference wholly to results that may 

follow the use of them in our public schools. 

27. How should a teacher judge as to the cor¬ 
rectness of the manner in which any writing has 
been executed? 

_He should be able to judge largely from the 

writing itself aside from seeing the pupil execute it. 








248 Science and Art of Penmanship. 

28. Can the elbow be regarded as a ‘‘fixed 
point ” in writing the vertical hand ? 

--No. 

29. What is the objection to “ elbow lifting ? ” 

-It changes the rest from the cushion of 

muscles below the elbow to the shoulder thus con¬ 
verting it from the “Business Movement” to that 
of the “ Off Hand Movement.” 

30. How may strokes be combined? 

-By turns, angles, ovals and loops. 

31. What is connective slant ? 

I he slant of lines connecting downward 
strokes and is usually about thirty degrees. 

32 What class of lower case letters are the 
same height as capital letters ? 

-The extended or loop letters. 

33. What are the main points in teaching be¬ 
ginners to write ? 

-Analysis and formation of letters. [Syn¬ 
thesis.] There must be a clear conception of form 
as a foundation and then learn to execute with ease 
and rapidity. 

34. What three capital letters are divided 
equally by the base line? 

-J, Y and Z. 

35. In what respects is the capital stem variable ? 

-In height, curvature and slant, 

36. Name three important requisites in pen¬ 
manship. 

-Legibility, rapidity and continuity. 


Miscellaneous Exercises. 


249 


37. How is the plainness of each letter insured 
in any combination ? 

-By being accurate in the form of each letter, 

and by placing a proper connecting line between 
them. 

38. What curves need special notice? 

-Those beginning and finishing letters. 

39. How are figures shaded ? How many should 
an ordinary writer make per minute? 

-On the same principles as letters : 100. 

40. Name some of the most common faults in 
making small and capital letters. 

-Irregularity; imperfect forms; lifting the 

pen in executing words. 

41. How is space measured in penmanship? 

-Usually on the line of arrangement by the 

rectangle, 3x4, as the unit of measure. [This 
should correspond to the difference between the 
straight lines of the small letter U u.” 

42. What movement seems best adapted to long 
strokes? 

-Muscular movement, or Fore Arm. 

43. Where are the connective or joining lines 
correctly seen ? 

-In combination. 

44. What kind of lines run from one letter to 
another in the word u coax?” Why are they not 
the same as when these letters stand alone? 

-Connecting lines. Because of the combi¬ 


nation. 









250 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


45. If a letter ends with a right curve and the 
one following begins with a left curve, what kind of 
curve will the connective be? 

-A compound curve. 

46. If a letter ends with a right curve and the 
one following begins with a right curve what kind 
of curve will the connective be ? 

-A right curve. 

47. Should pupils under seven or eight years of 
age be urged to write a systematic hand? 

-No, not necessarily, but he may begin such 

practice, though it be large and irregular as will lead 
to proper stroke movement and its application to 
the manner of execution of principles joined so as 
to produce letters and words or even entire words as 
units. 

48. What is “ lounging ? ” How corrected ? 

-The habit of lying or sprawling upon the 

desk in a lazy, careless way, and may be corrected bv 
working at a desk where the writer having such a 
habit will be compelled to stand on his feet while 
writing. 

49. What causes “ wrist wobbling?” 

-Slack tendons and looseness among the 

carpal bones. It may occasionally be overcome by 
proper splints. 

50. Should teacher and pupils be contented with 
any one text-book or system of copy books in a 
school? 





Miscellaneous Exercises. 


251 


-No. They should call to their assistance 

the thoughts and help of our best educators through 
the aid of up-to-date wide awake journals and books 
and thus become able critics, dissecting out that 
which is best for us now and promises most for the 
future. 


THE END. 



252 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


I1TDEX. 


CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF PENMANSHIP. 

-Outlines—Phoenicians—Phoenician Language—Semitic 
Language — Arabic — Aramaic —Hebrew—Phoenician 
Alphabet—Hebrew Alphabet—Arabic Alphabet—Old¬ 
est Documents — Herodotus — Pliny — Parchment- 
Skins— Rolls — Tablets of Wood — Style — Graver— 
Reed—Tnk—Chinese Writing — Egyptian Writing— 
Papyrus Paper—Hieroglyphical—Hieratic—Encorial 
—Key to Egyptian Writing—Arabic Numerals—En¬ 
glish Language—Periods —Foreign Words —Angli¬ 
cized—Assimilated—Alphabet—Derivation— Origin— 
Type-writing—Stenography—Telegraphy Invented- 
Pens—Envelopes—Slant Penmanship—Vertical Pen¬ 
manship — American Authors — Exercises — Topic 
Method—Question Method. 

CHAPTER II. 

POSITION. 

(Outlines — Position — Positions differ—Classification of 
Positions-Positions of the Body-Positions of the Eye 
—Positions of the Arms—Positions of the Fingers— 
Positions of the Feet and Limbs—The Class Position 
—The Front Position in Slant Writing — The Front 
Position in Vertical Writing —Exercises to Secure 
Correct Position of the Body— Pen-prehension — 
Poising—Exercises to Secure Correct Pen-prehenson 
—Exercises to Secure Correct Poising — Vision — My- 
osis — Mydriasis—Refraction— Accommodation—Em - 
metropia—Ametropia — Myopia — Hypermetropia — 
Presbyopia—Asthenopia— Phosphenes- Astigmatism 






Index. 


253 : 


—Blind Spots—Diplopia—Glasses necessary to Cor¬ 
rect Errors—What Glasses — Daltonism—System in 
Class Work—Class Exercises — Assigning Lessons— 
Cautions — Results of Improper Positions — Review 
Questions. 

CHAPTER III. 

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

Outlines— Definitions — Foundation o£ Written Lan¬ 
guage— Law of Combinations — Slant—Principles of 
Penmanship—Primary Principles of Lower Case Let¬ 
ters—The Dot—Uses of the Dot—The Straight Line- 
Uses of the Straight Line—The Right Curve—Uses of 
the Right Curve —The Left Curve — Uses of the Left 
Curve—Uses of Primary Principles as Seen in Words 
— Secondary Principles of Lower Case Letters Pri¬ 
mary Principles of Form Identical with Letters — 
Basis of all Form—Primary Principles of Capital Let¬ 
ters — Secondary Principles of Capital Letters Ana¬ 
lytical Table of Lower Case Letters—Analytical Table 
of Capital Letters — Order of Analysis for Single Let- 
ters—Models for Analysis—Exercises—Order of Analy¬ 
sis for Words, Sentences and Forms —Vertical Pen¬ 
manship — Proportion of Letters — Height—Width- 
Resemblances—Differences—Objects of Analysis and 
Synthesis —Differential Analysis—Slant Hand—Ver¬ 
tical Hand — Conditions Eftecting Good Work — Ex¬ 
ercises by Topic Method — Exercises by Question 

Method. 

CHAPTER IV. 

MOVEMENT. 

Outlines — Definitions — Methods of Action — Primary 
Classification of Movement— Secondary Classifica¬ 
tion of Movement—The Act of Prehension—The Act 
of Moving the Pen —The Act of Poising —The Dif¬ 
ferent Movements — Movement Drill Flexion Ex- 




254 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


tension — Abduction — Adduction — Circumduction 
—Rotation—The Arm — Forearm — Shoulder Joint— 
Elbow Joint—Wrist Joint—Palm—Phalanges—Move¬ 
ments permitted by the different articulations of the 
Bones of the Writing Instrument—Motor Apparatus 
—Muscles—Nerves—Bones—Movements of the Eye— 
Muscles of the Upper Extremity, their origin, inser¬ 
tion,nerve supply, and action—Forethought and Care 
of the Motor Apparatus—Writer’s Cramp ; Classifica¬ 
tion of Symptoms—Topic Method—Review Questions 79 

CHAPTER Y. 

EXECUTION. 

Outlines—Essentials of Execution—Normal Refraction 
of the Eye—Proper Position—Good Pens—Good Ink 
—Trained Muscles — Thorough Knowledge—Whole 
Arm Movement — Blackboard — The Writing Field— 
Speed—Guide Lines—Writing Scale—Style—Manner 
of Execution of Capital Letters—Of Lower Case Let¬ 
ters—Of Figures—Standard Capital Letters in Script 

— Standard Small Letters in Script — Polygrams — 
Grouping—Calisthenics—Word or Language Method 

— The Combining Movements — Rules for Combining 

—Rules for Slanting—Vertical Writing—Exercises— 
Cautions—Examination Questions. 116 

CHAPTER VI. 

SPACING AND SHADING. 

Outlines — Spacing — Object of Spacing — Measuring 
Units — Basis of Spacing — Rules —Automatic Act of 
Spacing—Length of Capitals—Length of Lower-Case 

— Shading— Guide to Shading — Basis of Shading — 
Uses of Shade—General Rules—Exercises—Cautions 

—Review Questions. 141 




Index. 


255 


CHAPTER VII. 

PRACTICE AND DRAWING. 

Outlines—Definitions—General Practice—Varieties of 
Capital Letters — Business Capitals, Fancy Capitals 
—Free Movement—Vertical Writing—Old English 
—German Text—Square Text—Italian Hand—En¬ 
grossing—Drawing—Philosophy of Drawing—Rules 
for Drawing—The Tracing Method—Illustrations— 

The Lead Pencil—Map Drawing—Materials—Neces¬ 
sary Processes—Maps—Review Questions . 149 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CAPITALIZATION, ITALICS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 

Outlines—Rules—Examples—Rules for the use of Ital¬ 
ics—When and why called I'alics ? —List of Abbrevi¬ 
ations—Exercises on Justifying use of Capitals—Ex¬ 
ercises in Abbreviating—Suggestions—Review Ques¬ 
tions. . 168 

CHAPTER IX. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Outlines—Rhetorical Punctuation—Referential Punctu¬ 
ation-Etymological Punctuation—Typical Punctua¬ 
tion-Uses of all the Punctation Marks—Exercises— 
Examinations—Questions. 17? 

CHAPTER X. 

LETTER WRITING AND MANUSCRIPTS. 

Outlines —Definitions—A Letter —The Parts or Divi¬ 
sions of a Letter—Addresses—Illustrations—General 

Directions to be observed in Letter Writing—Outlin¬ 
ing Letter—Notes of Invitation—Methods of Folding 
—Suggestive Forms—And Rules of Construction- 
Subjects—Man’s Life—Duties to Self—Duties to Others 
—Object of Life, etc.—Letter of Introduction—Writ- 






256 


Science and Art of Penmanship. 


ten Application for a Position—Letter of Recommen¬ 
dation—Due Bills—Examples of Correct Forms in Cor¬ 
respondence—Notes and Drafts—Exercises—Cautions 
—Review Exercises. 193 

CHAPTER XI. 

NARCOTICS. 

Outlines — Actions — Definitions—Alcoholism—Opium 
and its Alkaloids—Morphinism—Chloral Hydrate— 
Chloralism—Paraldehyde—Cannabis Indica—Cocaine 
—Bromides —Tobacco —Chloroform—Ether—Actions 
of the Narcotics on different parts of the System—Ex¬ 
ercises—Questions—List of General Questions and 
Answers. 224 




American Series of Drawing Books 


Complete in 29 Numbers. 


Nos. 1, 2, contain Exercises in Straight Lines and Examples of Geomet¬ 
rical Figures. No. 2 to be enlarged by pupils on dotted fields. 

No. 3, contains Exercises in Curved Lines and Examples of Geometrical 
and Symmetrical Forms. 

No. 4, contains Objects and Ornamental forms in Straight and Curved 
Lines. 

These four books show all the examples drawn on dotted fields. Simi¬ 
lar fields are printed in the spaces on which the pupils are to copy the 
example, thus enabling them to attain some proficiency in drawing a 
true straight or curved line before trusting too much to the untrained 


eye. 


No. 5, contains Objects, Figures and Houses in Perspective with Exer 
cises in Shading. 

No. 6, contains Tools and Implements. Line Shading. 


No. 7, 
No. 8, 
No. 9, 
No. 10, 
No. 11, 
No. 12, 
No. 13, 
No. 14, 
No. 15, 
No. 16, 
No. 17, 
No. 18. 
No. 19, 
No. 20, 
No. 21, 
No. 22, 
No. 23, 
No. 24, 
No. 25, 


Blocks and Cubes in Line Shading. 

Landscapes. Outlines in Perspective. 

to % Shading in Perspective. 
Studies in Foliage and Landscapes. %to% Shading. 
Ornamental Forms. % to 3li Shading. 

“ “ % to Full Shading. 


Flowers and Fruits. Outline to % Shading. 
Flowers. ' 34 to 34 Shading. 

Parts of Heads, etc. In Outline. 

Animals. In Outline. 

Birds. In Outline to 34 Shading. 

Fruits and Vegetables. 34 to Full Shading. 
Flowers. Full Shading. 

Animals. 34 to 34 Shading. 

Animals. 34 to Full Shading. 

Birds. Full Shading. 

Landscapes. Full Shading. 

Parts of Heads. 34 Shading. 

Heads. Full Shading. 


Special for Girls. 



containing Exercises in Needle Work : Simple Curved Lines, 
Leaves, Flowers, Patterns for Borders, Corner and Centre 
Pieces, Alphabets and Monograms. 


PRICES : Nos. 1—5, 10 cts. each. Nos. 6—25, 15 cts. each. Nos. 26—29, 10 
cts. each. 


CONCORDIA PUBLISHING HOUSE, 

ST. LOUIS, MO. ‘ 




•o 


Address all Orders 
for Copies of ... . 

The 


Science 


and Art of 


Penmanship 


To the Publishers 

Q. W. HENDERSON & SON, 

West Cairo, Allen Co., Ohio. 


o 


-o 











undersigned maf^e a ^PESIALTY 
of manufacturing boof^s for 0UTH0RS. 
^bis pives tbe author all tbe profits there 
may be in it, rnstead of the mere pittance 
of a royalty. 0utbors will do well to com¬ 
municate with us. 

W. g. & <?©., 

AUTHOR’S PUBLISHERS, 


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